with the exception of the dates within brackets: "Hellanicus [B.C. 496-411] regulated his narration by the succession of the priestesses of Juno at Argos. Ephorus [B.c. 300] digested things by generations. The Arundelian marbles [B.C. 263] make no mention of olympiads, and reckon backwards from the time then present by years. In the histories of Herodotus [B.C. 484-413] and Thucydides [B.C. 471-391] the dates of events are not ascertained by any fixed epochs. The olympiads were not commonly applied to this purpose in so early a period. Timæus of Sicily, who flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus [B.C. 283-245], was the first who attempted to establish an æra, by comparing and correcting the dates of the olympiads, the Spartan kings, the archons of Athens, and the priestesses of Juno. Eratosthenes [B.C. 194], the father of chronology, and Apollodorus [B.C. 115] digested the events recorded by them, according to the olympiads and the succession of Spartan kings." When the olympiads were adopted as an æra, the reckoning was made to commence from the games at which Corcbus was the victor, being the first at which the name of the victor was recorded. The olympiad of Corcbus accordingly is considered in chronology as the first olympiad. Its date is placed 108 years after the restoration of the games by Iphitus, and is calculated to correspond with the year B.C. 776. The statement we have just quoted from Playfair is given at greater length, and with references to the authorities, in the first chapter of Sir Isaac Newton's 'Chronology.' Of the names that have been mentioned, only Eratosthenes and Apollodorus can be considered as having been systematising chronologers, or as having employed themselves on the science of chronology. The merits of Timæus appear to have consisted in his endeavouring to ascertain with greater precision than any preceding historian the dates of the events of which he treated in his histories of Sicily, of the wars of Pyrrhus, &c. An account of his works is given in Clinton's 'Fasti Hellenici,' iii. 489-491. The fragments of Timæus have been collected by Goeller, in his work, ' De Situ et Origine Syracusanorum,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1818. Eratosthenes, the eminent astronomer, seems to have endeavoured to establish what may be called a system of chronology by ascertaining the dates of certain ancient events, which might serve as fixed points from which to reckon all other events. We have no account however of the process by which he arrived at his conclusions. The fragments of his chronological as well as of his other writings, with the passages of the ancient authors in which each is mentioned, and notes, have been published by Gottfr. Bernhardy in a small volume, entitled 'Eratosthenica,' 8vo., Berolini, 1822. The dates which he affixed to the principal events of antiquity are given from Clemens Alexandrinus, in Clinton, i. 124. Those of Apollodorus, who made some corrections on the system of Eratosthenes, are given in Clinton, i. 125, as preserved by Eusebius on the authority of Porphyry. Clinton has shown that the leading dates of Eratosthenes and Apollodorus were adopted generally by subsequent chronologers, both Greek and Latin. Among the Romans the most eminent authority in chronology was Varro, who flourished in the century immediately preceding our æra, but of whose nnmerous and learned works very little remains. Belonging to a much later age, the 3rd century of our æra, there has been preserved the work of Censorinus, entitled 'De Die Natali,' which is in the greater part a treatise on dates, epochs, and other matters appertaining to the science of chronology. There is a passage in the twenty-first chapter of Censorinus, containing a memorandum of the distance of the year in which he wrote (A.D. 238) from the first olympiad, from the building of Rome, from the reformation of the calendar by Julius Cæsar, and from other epochs, which has been thought so important to chronology, that Petau has attributed its preservation to the special goodness of Providence. The establishment of the first olympiad as a common epoch may be said to have given birth to chronology as a science, by introducing into historical writing the general practice of dating events with reference either to that or to some other fixed point. The principal business of chronologers after this was to determine the relationship of each of these epochs to every other. The common æra of the Roman historians commences from the foundation of the city of Rome. But there was a great variety of opinion among the ancients, as there has continued to be among the moderns, respecting the true date of this event. The Romans themselves for the most part followed either the computation of Cato, which places it in B.C. 752, or that of Varro, which assigns it to B.C. 753. Some writers, among others Livy, appear to reckon sometimes by the one, sometimes by the other; most modern chronologers follow that of Varro. This practice of dating events from the building of Rome may be regarded as the first adoption of the simple method of reckoning from a fixed point by single years, and as forming therefore one of the great stages of chronology. Another usual mode of reckoning among the Latin historians was by the annual consulships. Often both the year of the city and the names of the consuls are given. The method of reckoning from the first olympiad was occasionally employed long after the birth of Christ. "Some writers," says Playfair, "have continued the use of the olympiads to the 312th year of the Christain era. Cedrenus (a Greek monk of the 11th century) has brought them 80 years lower, making the 393rd year of our Lord the last olympian year." Sir Harris Nicolas ('Chronology of History, p. 2) speaks of the computation by olympiads having ceased after the 364th olympiad, in the year of Christ 440. Particular writers may have reckoned by olympiads down to that date, as they might down to the present day; but it had certainly long before ceased to be the common practice to do so. From A.D. 312 the regular public mode of computation throughout the Roman empire, both west and east, was by the indictions, which were cycles or periods of fifteen years, beginning with that year. [INDICTION.] The practice of dating events by indictions was at one time followed in most of the kingdoms of modern Europe, and in France was not altogether discontinued till the end of the 15th century. The method of dating events from the birth of Christ is said to have been first practised by a Roman monk named Dionysius the Little about the year 527. It came into general use in Italy before the termination of that century, but in France not until the 8th century, in Spain not until the 14th, and in Portugal not till after the commencement of the 15th. The method of reckoning from this epoch, being now universally adopted throughout Christendom, and being the only computation generally used both in historical accounts of past events and in dating current time, has furnished a chronological measure of much more extensive application than any other which had preceded it. It is generally held that the birth of Christ actually took place about four years earlier than the date assigned to the event by Dionysius; but this mistake of the inventor of the vulgar æra does not affect its value as a scheme of chronological notation. It is quite unimportant which the point is from which we reckon, if it be a determinate point. There is one inconvenience however attending the choice of an event for reckoning from so recent as the birth of Christ, namely, that it necessarily introduces two modes of reckoning, and leaves the events of a large, in fact of the largest, portion of history to be as it were dated backwards, or according to the distance of each behind the assumed epoch. Even the era of the olympiads was not free from this objection; for although, as we learn from Censorinus, Varro considered the historical age to commence only with the first olympiad, the traditions even of the Greeks ascended to fully four hundred years beyond that date. The histories and traditions of the Hebrews, and other ancient nations, extend much farther back. To provide a more comprehensive mode of reckoning, Joseph Scaliger, in 1582, invented what he called (after Julius Cæsar) the Julian period, being a cycle of 7980 years, which was made to begin at the year 4713 B.C. [PERIODS OF REVOLUTION.] A period still more remote of 15,969 years was invented by Jean Louis d'Amiens, and named the Louisian, in honour of Louis XIV., but this has been very seldom used. If the date of the creation of the world, or rather of man's appearance on the earth, could be certainly established, that would form the natural and most convenient point from which to commence the reckoning of time and to date the events of human history. None of the ancient chronologers attempted to fix this point; a common opinion then held was, that the world was eternal: some conceived that any attempt to discover the commencement of its existence would be an act of impiety. Even among the Jews and Christians, whose sacred writings begin their record of events from the creation, there has been the greatest diversity of opinion as to that epoch. Kennedy in his 'Scripture Chronology,' affirms that 300 different opinions might be collected as to the length of time that elapsed between the creation and the incarnation. John Alb. Fabricius, in his 'Bibliotheca Antiquaria,' has given a list of 140 of these determinations. Dr. Hales, in his 'New Analysis of Chronology,' has collected above 120. In 'L'Art de vérifier les Dates.' vol. i., p. 27, &c., is given a list of 108. Playfair has given one of 88. Desvignoles, in the preface to his 'Chronology of Sacred History,' asserts that he has collected above 200 such calculations, of which the longest makes the distance between the two points to have been 6984, and the shortest only 3483 years. The uncertainty and controversy upon this subject have been principally occasioned by the disagreement in the ages assigned to the Patriarchs, and in other numbers, between the Hebrew text of the Old Testament and the texts of the Samaritan and Septuagint versions. From the creation to the deluge the computation of the Hebrew text makes 1656 years to have elapsed; the Samaritan version only 1307; and the Septuagint 2262. The common opinion of modern theologians, and also of chronologers, has been that the Hebrew text is correct; and it is upon this assumption that Archbishop Usher, whose reckoning has been most generally adopted, has fixed the distance between the creation and the birth of Christ at 4004 years. But those who hold a contrary opinion, although the least numerous, have, according to Bayle, been usually des savans d'élite, inquirers of a superior order. It is maintained by Father Pezron, in his work' De l'Antiquité des Tems,' that the Hebrew text was designedly corrupted by the Jews in the first century, and the time that had elapsed from the creation made to appear shorter than it really was, in order to meet the argument derived from what is said to have been an old Jewish tradition, that the coming of the Messiah should take place when the world was 6000 years old. Rabbi Akiba is supposed by Pezron to have been the author of the falsifications. Pezron makes the world to have been 5872 years old at the birth of Christ. The supposition of the corruption of the Hebrew text, and the preference due to the Greek translation of the LXX., has been adopted and supported by Dr. Hales, who will scarcely however be reckoned one of the savans d'élite. Among modern systems of chronology, one of the most remarkable and peculiar is that proposed by Sir Isaac Newton, in his posthumous work, the Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended,' 4to, London, 1728. Newton, assuming the nearly entire valuelessness of the determinations of the dates of ancient events by the Greek chronologers and their followers, proceeds to form a new system on considerations wholly independent of their authority. In the first place he has endeavoured to show that the ancient historians, when "a little after the death of Alexander the Great, they began to set down the gene-5 vols. fol., Paris, 1670; 'Chronologie de l'Histoire Sainte,' par Alphonse rations, reigns, and successions, in numbers of years, by putting reigns and successions equipollent to generations, and three generations to 100 or 120 years (as appears by their chronology), have made the antiquities of Greece 300 or 400 years older than the truth." He contends that the reigns of kings, on an average, do not exceed eighteen or twenty years. Secondly, he has endeavoured to ascertain the date of the famous Argonautic expedition by an ingenious calculation founded upon the known precession of the equinoxes at the rate of a degree in seventy-two years (properly a degree is about 714 years), and the assumption of the equinoxial and solstitial colures having at the time of the expedition cut the ecliptic in the cardinal points. From these data he determines the expedition to have taken place about the year 928 B.C., which gives an antiquity less by about three centuries than that commonly assigned to the event. But the grounds on which Newton had assumed the position of the colures at the time of the expedition are now generally acknowledged to be quite insufficient. Although the full exposition of this system was not published till after the death of the author, its general principles got abroad during his lifetime, and were attacked from various quarters. The two chief early assailants of the Newtonian chronology were the learned French Jesuit Souciet, and Nicolas Freret, known for his many valuable contributions to the memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions. In latter times the system has been examined by Playfair (pp. 35-37), and by Hales (vol. i., pp. 26-29). See also Sir David Brewster's Life of Newton,' and a valuable note by M. Daunon to the article on Newton by Biot in the Biographie Universelle,' vol. xxxi., pp. 180-186. Clinton denies that the general uncertainty of the early Greek chronology is so great as is supposed by the scheme of Newton. of that work by the author, Paris, 4to, 1691; Hier. Wecchietti Florentini, Opus de Anno Primitivo ab exordio Mundi ad Annum Julianum accommodato,' fol., August. Vindel., 1621, a work for which the learned and unfortunate author was shut up during the remainder of his life in the prisons of the Inquisition, his crime being his maintenance of the opinion that Christ did not celebrate the passover the last year of his life, and, in instituting the Eucharist, did not made use of unleavened bread; Philippi Labbe et Philippi Brietii, Chronologia Historica,' Desvignoles, 2 vols. 4to, Berlin, 1738. The work of the Benedictine monks, Maur d'Antine, Durand, and Clemencé, first published in 1 vol. 4to, at Paris, 1750, and which, in the latest edition, extending to 38 vols. 8vo, published at Paris, 1818-31, under the title of 'L'Art de Vérifier les Dates, ou la suite Chronologique des événemens remarquables depuis la création du monde jusqu'en 1828,' has become the most extensive and important work on general chronology that exists. The principal works by English authors upon this science are the Chronicus Canon Egyptiacus, Ebraicus, et Græcus,' of Sir John Marsham, fol., London, 1672, and also Leipzig, 1676, and Francfort, 1696; Archbishop Usher's Annales Utriusque Testamenti,' fol., Lond. 1650, and several times reprinted; Sir Isaac Newton's work, already noticed; Jackson's 'Chronological Antiquities,' 3 vols. 4to, 1752; Blair's 'Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation,' fol., 1754; again, 1768, with additions; and in 1857, in post 8vo, with very large additions, brought down to the date of publication, a very useful work, but one that admits of some improvements in the arrangement, the dates of events occurring in any one year being too much scattered; Kennedy's 'Complete System of Astronomical Chronology, unfolding the Scriptures,' 4to, 1762; Playfair's 'System of Chronology,' fol., Edin. 1784; and the Rev. Dr. William Hales's New Analysis of Chronology, in which an attempt is made to explain the History and Antiquities of the Primitive Nations of the World, and the Prophecies relating to them,' 3 vols. 4to, 1800-1812. There is also a useful introduction to chronology by Bishop Beveridge, entitled 'Institutionum Chronologicarum Libri Duo, una cum totidem Arithmetices Chronologica Libellis,' 8vo, Lond. 1669, and several times reprinted. There are many good works on chronology in foreign languages, among which may be specially mentioned Ideler's expe-Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie,' Berlin, 1825-26. Particular portions of ancient chronology have been ably illustrated by Corsini in his Fasti Attici, in quibus Archontum Atheniensium series, Philosophorum, aliorumque illustrium virorum ætas, atque præcipua Attica Historia capita, describuntur,' 4 vols. 4to, Flor. 1744-61; by Wesseling, in his edition of Diodorus Siculus, 2 vols. fol., Amster. 1745; by Dodwell, in his Annales Thucydidei et Xenophontei, 4to, Oxford, 1702; and by Larcher, in his 'Essai de Chronologie sur Hérodote,' already mentioned. But in so far as the Greek chronology is concerned, the most comprehensive, elaborate, and valuable work that has appeared is that of Mr. H. F. Clinton, entitled 'Fasti Hellenici: the Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece, from the earliest accounts to the death of Augustus,' in 3 vols. 4to, of which the first, comprising the chronology from the earliest accounts to the time of Pisistratus, was published at Oxford in 1834; the second, comprising the period from Pisistratus to Ptolemy Philadelphus, in 1824; and the third, completing the review to the end of the reign of Augustus, in 1830. Although Newton's deduction of the date of the Argonautic dition from the precession of the equinoxes cannot be depended on, owing to the want of any authority for the position of the colures at the time of the expedition, the science of astronomy has in another way rendered valuable assistance to that of chronology. This it has done by the means which it affords of ascertaining the exact date of many eclipses of the sun and moon which are recorded by ancient writers, and are sometimes connected by them with historical events that happened at or near the same time. In the first volume of the great French work, 'L'Art de Vérifier les Dates' (pp. 146-265), are given lists of all the eclipses of the sun and moon which could have been seen to the north of the equator for ten centuries preceding the birth of Christ; and secondly, of all those recorded before that epoch by ancient writers. In a subsequent volume of the same work there is inserted a list of the visible eclipses that have happened since the commencement of the vulgar æra. Lists of eclipses, solar and lunar, are also given in Playfair's Chronology,' pp. 175-219. As an example of the astronomical examination of a recorded ancient eclipse, see the article ALYATTES, in BIOG. DIV. One of the earliest of the Christian systematic chronologers is Sextus Julius Africanus, who appears to have flourished in the first half of the 3rd century. Of his chronological work, entitled 'Pentabiblos,' however, beginning with the creation, which he dated B.C. 5499, and ending with A.D. 221, only some fragments remain. [AFRICANUS, BIOG. Div.] The most important of the works of the early Christian chronologers which we now possess is the Chronicon of Eusebius Pamphili, bishop of Cæsarea, in the 4th century, of which an edition was published with notes by Joseph Scaliger in 1658, in one volume folio, containing the Latin translation by St. Jerome, and Scaliger's attempted restoration of the lost Greek text. The Armenian version of the Chronicon of Eusebius, which is more complete than the previous editions, was published at Venice in 1818, with a literal Latin translation, and another Latin translation of it, in the same year, at Milan. There is a famous Spanish commentary upon the Chronicle of Eusebius, by Alfonso Tostato, printed at Salamanca, in 5 vols. fol., in 1506. The work which is to be considered as having laid the foundation of the modern science of chronology is that of Joseph Scaliger, De Emendatione Temporum,' first published in folio at Paris in 1583, and afterwards, much augmented and amended, at Leyden in 1598, and at Geneva in 1629. Another important work of that age is that of Dionysius Petavius, or Petau, De Doctrinâ Temporum,' 2 vols. fol., Paris, 1627, with the Continuation in 1 vol. fol., Paris, 1630, entitled 'Uranologion, sive Systema variorum auctorum qui de Sphæra ac Sideribus, &c., commentati sunt.' An abridgment of this work, under the title of Rationarium Temporum,' was published at Paris in 8vo, in 1630, and has been several times reprinted. Of other early Continental works on chronology, the following are some of the most valuable, or the most celebrated:-Sethi Calvisii, Opus Chronologicum,' Leips. 1603, often reprinted; J. Bapt. Riccioli, Chronologia Reformata,' 2 vols. fol., Bonon. 1669; L'Antiquité des Tems rétablie et défendue,' fur le Père Paul Pezron, Paris, 4to, 1687, and the Defence The volumes of chronological tables that have appeared are too many to be enumerated. Several of the systematic works on chronology that have been mentioned contain collections of such tables. The only other work which we shall mention is a most useful and, as far as we have examined it, very accurate publication, in one small volume, by Sir Harris Nicolas, entitled 'The Chronology of History,' which originally formed one of the volumes of Dr. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia.' [See the articles ÆRA, EPACT, EPOCH, CYCLE, DAY, MONTH, YEAR, INDICTION, &c.] CHRONOMETER. [HOROLOGY.] CHRONOMETER, in music, an instrument by which the movement, or time (that is, the quickness or slowness) of a composition is determined. The musical chronometer is by no means a modern contrivance. So far back as the year 1636 Mersenne described and recommended it, in his 'Harmonie Universelle'; and Malcolm, a sensible writer, urged its use more than a century ago. Yet, owing to the prejudices of musicians, it has till lately not been employed, although its utility has been generally admitted. Dr. Crotch, an enlightened professor, advocated the use of a pendulum. The opponents of a time-measurer presume that it is meant rigorously to govern the whole of a composition, and that thus the beautiful effects of acceleration and retardation are to be sacrificed; but those who have advised the employment of a pendulum never contemplated its being used for any other purpose than to indicate the time to be adopted at the commencement of a movement. From the want or neglect of some contrivance by which the intention of composers might have been transmitted, we are now obliged to guess the true movements of the most classical works; and it is notorious that many compositions of the highest excellence, and among them several of recent date, are frequently performed in times which could not have been intended, because by good critics admitted to be exceedingly prejudicial to their effect. The invention, by the ingenious M. Maelzel, of a most accurate and convenient machine which he calls a Metronome, is beginning to convince musicians of the utility of a pendulum; and we are persuaded that not many years will elapse before it will be universally adopted, both by composers and performers. That an advance has been made in its use is evident from the fact, that some composers and editors at the commencement of their printed pieces, now mark the time as indicated by the METRONOME. CHRYODINE. A dark violet-coloured matter, produced by the action of sulphuric acid upon chrysammic acid. CHRYSAMIDE. [CHRYSAMMIC ACID.] CHRYSAMIDIC ACID. [CHRYSAMMIC ACID.] CHRYSAMMIC ACID (CH(NO,),0), is the product of the action of nitric acid upon extract of aloes. One part of the extract is heated in a capacious retort with eight parts of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1-37, and the mixture distilled till two-thirds of the nitric acid has passed over; an additional three or four parts of nitric acid is now added, and the whole kept at a temperature a little below the boiling point till no more gas is evolved. The re-action is complete in about three or four days, and on diluting the resulting liquid with water, chrysammic acid is precipitated, which, after washing with a little water, should present the appearance of a sparkling grayish-yellow powder; probably, however, it will be contaminated with a little aloetic acid [ALOETIC ACID], on account of insufficient oxidation. In that case it must be treated with a cold solution of carbonate of potash; the very soluble aloetate of potash separated by filtration and washing from the slightly soluble chrysammate of potash, and the latter dissolved in boiling water, and the chrysammic acid precipitated by nitric acid. Thus obtained, the chrysammic acid is quite pure. It has the form of golden-yellow lustrous plates, is very slightly soluble in cold water, but a little more so in boiling water, yielding a solution of a purple-red tint, and a bitter taste. It is also soluble in alcohol, ether, and strong acids. Heated chrysammic acid decomposes with violent explosion, producing nitrous vapours and an odour resembling oil of bitter almonds. The chrysammates containing an equivalent of a metal in the place of an equivalent of hydrogen in the chrysammic acid, are remarkable for their slight solubility. The crystalline salts have a greenish gold colour, and the insoluble amorphous salts take the same tint on rubbing with a hard body. Chrysammate of potash (C1HK(NO),0,) crystallises in the form of flat rhomboidal plates, that possess an interesting polarising action upon light transmitted through them. Chrysatic acid (Schunk's aloeresinic acid) is the name given by Mulder to an acid obtained on boiling chrysammic acid with caustic potash, and precipitating with an acid. It has a deep brown colour, and forms salts with most of the bases. Chryiodine is the product of the action of concentrated boiling sulphuric acid on chrysammic acid. Its colour is intense violet. It has not been particularly examined. Chrysamide (C,H,(NO,),NO,), obtained on boiling chrysammic acid with solution of ammonia: The solution, on cooling, deposits the substance in acicular crystals, reddish-brown by transmitted light, and having a green metallic lustre by reflected light. Chrysamidic acid (CH(NO) NO) is formed when chrysammic acid is boiled with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, C14H2(NO4)2O4 + NH3 = C1,H5(NO), NO, Chrysammic Ammonia. Chrysamidic acid. It crystallises, on the cooling of the solution, in needles that, when dry, have a deep olive-green colour. It forms salts with bases that resemble the chrysammates, but which may be distinguished from them by yielding ammonia when gently warmed with solution of potash. Hydrochrysamide (CH(NO)NO) results on boiling chrysammic acid with solution of sulphide of potassium containing excess of caustic potash. It crystallises on cooling under the form of beautifully-coloured needles. CHRYSANILIC ACID. [INDIGO.] CHRYSANISIC ACID. (CH(NO),0) An acid obtained by boiling nitranisic acid with fuming nitric acid. It crystallises in small scales of a magnificent gold colour. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in hot alcohol and ether. It is a monobasic acid, and forms an extensive series of salts termed chrysanisalts. It may be regarded as picric acid, in which one equivalent of hydrogen has been replaced by the compound radical methyl, thus :— comprehending the Chrysanthemum Sinense, a Chinese half-shrubby plant, whose numerous varieties constitute one of the chief ornaments of gardens in the months of October, November, and December. The native state of this species is not certainly known, all the many varieties now in gardens having been bought in the markets of Macao, from the Chinese traders. [CHRYSANTHEMUM, NAT. HIST. DIv.] In the cultivated state the plant has bluish-green broad leaves with sharp serratures and deep lacerations; and the flower-heads consist exclusively of ligulate florets of almost every colour, except blue. Pure white, bright yellow, deep and pale red, rich purple, and a dark morone brown, occur in different varieties of this favourite flower, and together contribute to the beauty for which the species is so much admired. It is probable that the numerous varieties cultivated by the Chinese, and now introduced to Europe, have been the result of ages of careful improvement, and that their properties have been derived partly from mere sporting and partly from intermixture with allied species unknown in Europe; for among those now cultivated are varieties remarkably different in constitution, many being capable of bringing their beautiful flowers to perfection in the open air, and thriving well even in the confined spaces and corrupted air of large towns, while others hardly unfold them even beneath the atmosphere of a green-house or stove. They all strike root with great facility by cuttings, which should be taken from the parent plant at midsummer, and planted in a cool frame under a bell-glass. After rooting they may be successively transferred from one sized pot to another, until they have formed two or three stout stems ready for flowering, when they must be finally left at rest. If the soil in which they grow is rich, and the air cool and moderately moist, with a free exposure to light, cuttings struck at midsummer will flower beautifully in the succeeding autumn. The size and perfection of their flowers is increased by about half of the flowerheads that naturally appear being destroyed. As the varieties of this plant are very numerous, and very different in their degrees of hardiness and beauty, it will be necessary for the grower to ascertain the nature of the varieties he is about to cultivate. The varieties of the hardy class may be cultivated without any protection by having their stems pegged down upon the surface of the earth, so as not to be allowed to rise more than a few inches above it when in flower. So treated they form a charming ornament of a flower-garden; but the other kinds do not like this treatment. Seeds of these plants have been obtained at Oxford and in Jersey, and many new varieties have been raised, among which are some that rival the handsomest of the Chinese sorts. CHRYSATIC ACID. [CHRYSAMMIC ACID.] CHRYSEN (C,,H,) is one of the numerous compounds formed in coal tar. It is a yellow crystalline solid, melting at a temperature of 455°. CHRYSOLEPIC ACID. [CARBAZOTIC ACID.] CHRYSOPHANIC ACID. (CH,O,?) Rhubarbaric Acid, Rhubar barin, Rhein, Rheic Acid, Rheumin, Rhaponticin, Rumicin, is found in the Parmelia parietina. It occurs in the form of golden yellow crystals, and with solutions of potash and ammonia, in alcohol, yields a beautiful red colour. CHRYSORHAMNIN (CHO), the yellow colouring matter of Persian berries-the fruit of the Rhamnus amygdalinus. It crystallises in beautiful golden yellow stellar groups. By solution in water or in alcohol it is decomposed, and converted in xanthorhamnin (CHO). It is soluble in ether without decomposition, and is deposited again on evaporation of the solution. 12 CHURCH, or KIRK, which is precisely the same word in a varied orthography, is supposed to be the Greek word kupiaкós (kuriakos), a derivative of Kúpios (lord), one of the designations of Jesus Christ, the founder of the Christian system. It is one of the Saxon adoptions from the Greek. Kupiakos is an adjective, and we must understand after it some word denoting flock, or house, the Lord's flock, the Lord's house; the two senses in which kirk, or church, is used. Of church, as denoting an edifice appropriated to Christian purposes, we treat in a separate article. We have now to speak of it as a term used to designate bodies or communities of men, when contemplated under the aspect of being persons who are followers of the Lord Jesus Christ. We shall endeavour to exhibit and illustrate the various senses in which it is used with as much completeness as our limits will allow. The word church has been used from the most remote period to represent the Greek term ekkλnoía (ecclésia), which often occurs in the New Testament, which was adopted into the Latin language without any change, and which gives us our words ecclesiastics and ecclesiastical, which correspond to the Saxon terms churchmen, The meaning of the word ecclesia among the and of churchmen. classical Greek writers is "meeting or assembly," and in this or the somewhat modified sense of "community" it was adopted by the writers of the New Testament. The whole community of Christians thus constitute the church. This is the sense in which the word is most commonly used in the New Testament: as when it is said that "the Lord added daily to the church such as should be saved" (Acts ii. 47); "Head over all things to his church" (Eph. i. 22); “concerning zeal, persecuting the church (Phil. iii. 6); and when our Lord said, "Thou art Peter, and on this rock I will build my church" (Mat. xvi. 18), he contemplated that majestic assembly, the multitude whom no man can number, who in ages to come should form the great Christian community. And as, when thus used by the Apostles, it comprehended all the disciples of Christ, without regard to questions which divided the opinions of Christians even in the earliest times, so it is still often used to denote the whole body of Christians, notwithstanding any peculiarities in their church order and ritual, or however they may understand the instructions on some points of Christ and the Apostles. But it soon came to be regarded as essential to the idea of a church that the believers should be bound together by a species of mutual pledge, and form a compact and united body. Certain outward forms of profession came to be regarded as requisite for every member, such as baptism and partaking in the Lord's Supper; certain officers, as bishops, pastors, and deacons, were regarded as essential; as well as certain uniform services, and the acknowledgment of certain propositions as containing a just exposition and summary of the doctrine of Christ and the Apostles. A continued effort seems to have been making from a very early period in the history of Christianity to bring the body of professing Christians into this state of consistency and uniformity. And to give the greater effect to the effort, the bishop of Rome, who was represented as the direct successor of St. Peter, the rock on whom the church was to be built, received by almost universal consent a kind of headship, or supremacy, and about him was gathered a council, consisting of other bishops, pastors, and deacons, forming a supreme authority in this compact community, and a court of ultimate appeal. Up to the time of Constantine, the church had been independent of the State. By uniting the two, the church acquired rank and wealth-the state the means of influencing its rulers. Nearly the whole body of professing Christians in the states of western Europe were, by various means, brought to enrol themselves in this great confederacy, and they formed for many ages the church, a numerous and in the main a well-ordered and well-governed community. But the removal of the seat of empire led indirectly to the first great separation into the eastern and western churches, continuing to the present day under the forms of the Greek church and the Roman Catholic church. At the Reformation, certain states of Europe separated themselves from the Western Church. The separation was made on various grounds: objections to the tyranny of the ecclesiastical authorities: to their exactions; to their assumption of powers not sanctioned by reason or Scripture; to the corrupt lives of some of the persons near the head of the church; together with an opinion that the ceremonies enjoined in the ritual were superstitious, if not idolatrous; and that many things were taught to the people as Christian verities which not only had no countenance from Scripture, but which were opposed to the plain teachings of Christ and his Apostles. Many of the leading reformers did not look to the disruption of the church, but to the reformation of it in doctrine and discipline, leaving the community of believers in the compact order in which they found them. But the resistance which was made to the efforts of the reformers, combined with other things, rendered this impracticable, and nothing remained for the states in which the call for reformation was the loudest, and where a strong sense of the corruption of the Roman Catholic system had possessed the minds both of rulers and people, but to break off from the great confederacy, and to renounce entirely all connection with and all spiritual allegiance to the pope, the great head of the church. Hence arose another use and application of this term church, and we hear of the Lutheran church, the church of Geneva, the church of Scotland, and the church of England, meaning the Christian members of those political confederacies, or belonging to those nations, when regarded under the aspect of being professed believers in Christ. The expediency and the right of particular nations thus to detach themselves from the great community of Christians, and to establish churches of their own, have been subject of controversy. Protestants, or Reformers, however, regard the point as settled, and in all the Protestant states of Europe, there are national churches established, founded on the public law, and regulated by the same public will which regulates affairs purely political and secular. Those national churches of Protestantism vary among themselves on numerous points of order, ritual, and doctrine, according to the peculiar opinions of the persons who happened to possess the chief influence at the time when the new faith, form, and order were established, or who at a somewhat later period had influence sufficient to modify the church in any of these points. Hence there is no common church of Protestants. Each Protestant nation has its own church, and regulates its own spiritual affairs without communication with other Protestant people. It is a system of national independency. These national churches, however, are not found to comprehend all persons who in their political character are members of the respective nations. There are many who separate themselves from the national union because they object to the principle of a national church. They contend that there should be no such church regulated by councils and parliaments, but that the believers in Christ should be left at entire liberty, each person for himself to connect himself with others, if he sees proper to do so, and thus to form Christian communities on principles and for purposes such as each individual might approve for himself. The Congregationalists or Independents of England, the most numerous class of English dissenters, in the declaration of their faith, church order, and discipline, issued by authority in 1833, avow the principle that each society of believers associated together for religious purposes is properly a Christian church. The question about which there has been so much disputation, of the union of church and state, is in effect, and when stripped of its abstraction and its personification, nothing more than the question whether there shall be a union of the people of each nation in one Christian society, the affairs of which are regulated by the national will as that will is collected on other subjects; or, whether there shall be no expression of a common will, but each person be left to receive or neglect Christianity, and to make his public profession of it in whatever way seems to him to be the best. Our limits do not allow us to enter into the discussion of this question, but we may state the main arguments briefly thus: In behalf of a national church it is contended that without some public provision there would soon be many parts of the country without Christian ministrations at all; that by securing an order of well-instructed ministers, there is the best preservative that can be devised against the prevalence of injurious superstition and dangerous errors; that affairs of such importance as these should be subjected to the consideration and direction of the enlightened mind of a people; and that practically from the moment that property is acquired by any body of professing Christians, that body must become amenable to the state, must apply to the state for direction whenever questions arise respecting it, so that it is in fact impossible entirely to disjoin affairs of religion from affairs of state. On the other hand, it is contended that to set up articles of faith and forms of worship is an injurious invasion of the rights of Christians; that to connect the profession of particular opinions with temporal advantages is unfavourable to the progress of inquiry and of truth, and has a tendency to produce simulation in Christian ministers; that the system leads to political subserviency, and fosters a worldliness of spirit; and that practically the system is not acceptable to the nation, as is evinced by the number of persons who, notwithstanding the losses and inconveniences to which, in consequence, they subject themselves, yet do not belong to the church. The Methodists do not, we believe, speak of themselves as a church; but their system is in all its great features that of a Presbyterian church. We have now gone through the principal senses in which this term church is used when it is applied with any propriety. But we cannot conclude without noticing one other sense in which the word is often used, and we notice it to condemn it as mischievous, and in every point of view incorrect and improper. We mean when church is used to denote the officers of the church, the bishops, priests, and deacons; a use of it neither sanctioned by etymology nor the usage of primitive times, and which is calculated greatly to mislead, as things which are predicated, and truly predicated, of the church in its proper sense of a community of believers in church order, and appointed with proper church officers, may be transferred inadvertently to church when it is the officers only who are meant. "The interests of the church," for instance, a very common phrase, are properly the interests of the great English community looked upon in the aspect of its relation to Christianity, not the interests of the officers or ministers only. Their proper designation is not the church, but the clergy. CHURCH. An ecclesiastical edifice, sometimes built after the model of a modern basilica, sometimes in the form either of a Latin or a Greek cross, and sometimes, though much more rarely, circular in form. The basilica form however must be considered as belonging to the churches of the early Christians [BASILICA]; cruciform churches are of Romanesque date, and were almost universal during the prevalence of Gothic architecture. The origin of the difference between the form of the Latin and Greek cross belongs to the period of the division between the Eastern and the Western churches. [BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.] The Latin cross was in common use in the greater part of Europe until the Reformation. Some resemblance to the basilica form may be traced in modern churches erected since the Reformation to the revival of Gothic architecture. A church or cathedral with a Greek cross has the transept as long as the nave and choir: the greater part of the Greek churches are built in this form. The Latin cross has the nave much longer than the transept and choir. The greater part of our older parish churches consist of a nave with aisles, a chancel (in the larger churches, a transept), and a tower sometimes at the intersection of the arms of the cross, but usually at the western end. Many of our modern churches, and particularly those constructed in the 18th, and early part of the 19th century, consist of only one long nave, with an altar at the east end; the cross form, or transept, is in some instances scarcely perceptible, and in others entirely omitted. In the nave of the church, towards the east end, are placed the pulpit and reading-desk, now almost invariably on one side, but during the prevalence of a semi-classic style often in the centre of the nave. The altar end of the church is raised by a step or steps, and is enclosed. The font is sometimes placed near the entrance, at others nearer the altar. Stoups, or small stone basins, set in niches and intended for holy water, were general in English churches before the Reformation, and are still often seen in village churches. Near the altar in ancient churches there are sometimes sedilia, or niches, with seats in them, raised each a step above the other. According to some ecclesiological writers the correct division of a church is into nave, chancel, and sacrarium. 6 Churches are of five classes, metropolitan, cathedral, collegiate, con ventual, and parish churches. The term cathedral is derived from Kabédpa, a seat,' from the seat or throne of the bishop being placed therein. Cathedrals are the chief ecclesiastical structures of the dioceses in which they are situated. Almost every cathedral is varied in plan, although the leading features, the nave and choir, are found in almost all. The plan usually consists of a galilee, or chapel, at the principal entrance; the nave or main body of the church; the side aisles, which do not rise so high as the nave, and are placed on each side of the nave, sometimes with chapels, at other times without, between the openings formed by the windows; the choir, or place for the ceremonies of the church; the transept, or division at right angles to the end of the nave next the choir, which projects on each side, and forms a cross on the plan. Some cathedrals have a double transept, and the transepts have often aisles. At the end of the choir is the high altar, behind which is usually a lady chapel, or chapel to the Virgin. The choir end of a cathedral is sometimes terminated by an apsis, or semicircular end. Along the sides of the choir are ranged richly carved seats, ornamented with arches, pinnacles, and tracery, carved in oak. The bishop's seat, richer than the others and raised above them, is on one side, at the eastern end. The choir has also side aisles. Cloisters and a chapter-house are usually attached to English cathedrals, but the latter are more rarely met with on the Continent, the chapters being usually held in the cathedral, or in a chapel within the cathedral or abbey. The minor parts of a cathedral are the muniment room, the library, the consistory court, the vestries of the dean and chapter, minstrels' chapels, a font, and a minstrels' gallery. Beneath the body of the cathedral there is usually a crypt, or low basement, supported on arches springing from thick columns, as in Canterbury Cathedral and others. Both externally and internally the ancient cathedrals of England, France, and Germany display all the ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. II. magnificence of Gothic architecture. Like ecclesiastical buildings generally, they stand with the altar towards the east, and the principal entrance to the west; the transept is placed north and south. At the point of intersection of the transept with the nave there is usually a lofty tower, sometimes surmounted by an elegant spire, as in Salisbury Cathedral. Sometimes the principal or western front has a tower at each angle, and these in some instances are also terminated with spires. The nave of a Gothic cathedral is supported by clustered columns, arched from one to the other, over which there is usually a row of small arches forming a gallery, which is called the triforium, and above are windows called clerestory windows. The aisles are lighted by windows placed between the openings of the arches of the nave; and, externally, the buttresses of the aisles often rise, supported on an arch, to the wall of the nave: these are called flying buttresses. The exterior walls of the cathedral, with its towers, are generally decorated with buttresses, surmounted with pinnacles; and between the but 3 M |
