ness. It is highly probable that he was by birth a Median, and lived under the Median king Gustasp, who, according to Hammer, was the same as Darius Hystaspes, but, according to others, Cyaxares I. If the last supposition is correct, he lived not much before the time of Cyrus. The religion introduced by him ought not to be considered as entirely new. From the investigations of Hammer, it would appear that pure fire-worship (in which, however, the fire was only symbolical) was the oldest religion of the Bactro-Median race; and from this the worship of the planets sprung. Zoroaster refined this fire-worship. It is not settled whether his improvements were, at first, adopt ed by the magi only, or whether they were received by the Medians generally, and afterwards communicated by them to the Persians, their conquerors. The latter supposition has much in its favor, particularly the circumstance that the Persians showed a great readiness to adopt foreign religions, which may have arisen, in a great measure, from their deification of the powers of nature. Shortly after the time of Socrates, the religion of Zoroaster had spread throughout Persia. The following are its principal doctrines: From eternity there have existed two beings, Ormuzd and Ahriman, the principles of the universe. Ormuzd is pure, eternal light, the original source of all perfection. The nature of Ahriman, likewise, belonged originally to ight; and so far he was good; but because he envied the light of Ormuzd, he obscured his own, became an enemy of Ormuzd, and the father of evil, and of all bad beings, who join with him in a contest with the good. Ormuzd and Ahriman performed the work of creation at different epochs, and brought into existence various species of beings. Ormuzd created, by his living word, that is, the power of his will, the community of good spirits-first, six immortal spirits of light, for the service of his throne (Amshaspand); then twenty-eight subordinate spirits, representatives of the months and days; and, at last, a multitude of human souls. Ahriman produced a number of bad spirits, six arch-devs, spirits of darkness, and innumerable devs of lower rank. The good dwell with Ormuzd in light. Ahriman lives with his creatures in the kingdom of darkness. 3000 years Ormuzd ruled alone; after which he created material beings, in their various degrees; at last, man, and, after the labor, celebrated the first festival of creation with the good

spirits. Again he ruled in this world of innocence and happiness 3000 years. In the next period of equal length. begins the contest between light and darkness, Ormuzd and Ahriman, who, in a contin ual struggle, divide the dominion of the world. The following 3000 years ex tend and confirm the power of Ahriman: afterwards his power declines; the devs sink to nothing; their former prince does homage to Ormuzd; the bad disappear. The dead arise; the primitive kingdom of happy souls, under the government of Ormuzd, returns. Thus the world is made to continue 12,000 years. The twelve signs of the zodiac play a part: to each is assigned a thousand years. The number seven, as presented in the seven amshaspands, and seven arch-devs, including Ormuzd and Ahriman, refers to the planets. The subordinate genii of the material world are the personified parts and elements of nature. The spirits of men pass through a state of happiness before they reach the body; and, in that heavenly state, contend with bad spirits, protect the good upon earth, and are reverenced by them. Men themselves are either the servants of Ormuzd, through wisdom and virtue, or the slaves of Ahriman, through folly and vice. The former pass, after death, over the bridge Shinevad, into the dwelling of the happy; the latter fall into hell. When Ahriman is conquered, the resurrection of the body follows, and the earth is adorned for the residence of the virtuous. The essential doctrines of Zoroaster are found in the Zend-Avesta, the most sacred record of his religion. The discovery of this ancient monument by Anquetil du Perron, did not, at first, receive credit. He left Paris in 1755, to investigate the religion of all the nations of Asia not professing the Mohammedan faith, particularly the inhabitants of Indiaan undertaking which he successfully executed, notwithstanding numerous obstacles. (See Anquetil du Perron.) At Surat, he obtained, from some learned Persians, a copy of the books of the ZendAvesta, in the Zend and Pehlvi languages. The latter he studied himself, and translated, in conjunction with learned natives, the Zend-Avesta into modern Persian. Having returned to France, he gave to the library in Paris the manuscripts which he had collected in India, and published a translation of the Zend-Avesta into the French language, with notes. The celebrated Orientalist sir William Jones expressed himself warmly against the extraordinary account of Anquetil; but Kleu

ker, the German translator of the ZendAvesta, has combated the doubts entertained on the subject with much force. Late inquiries into the religions of antiquity, particularly those which relate to India, have illustrated many points in the doctrines of Zoroaster. The literary treasures which the celebrated linguist Rask has lately brought from India, promise new light, and tend to confirm the genuineness of the Zend-Avesta. (See Zend-Avesta.) But the books which are known under the name of the Oracles of Zoroaster, and which have stood in high repute, particularly among mystics, and students of the secret sciences, by which men hoped to discover the philosopher's stone, are, obviously, forgeries of a later period.

ZRINYI, or ZRINI, Nicholas, count of, general of the emperor Ferdinand I, ban of Croatia, Dalmatia and Sclavonia, a modern Leonidas, was born in 1518. When but a boy of twelve years, he distinguished himself so much during the siege of Vienna that Charles V gave him a horse and gold chain. He also distinguished himself in the wars against John of Zapolya, and sultan Suleyman (Soliman), the ally of Zapolya, and did much to improve light cavalry. His noble figure, his vivacity, liberality, and strict justice, gained him the love of his soldiers to an uncommon degree. In 1542, at the battle of Pesth, his sudden arrival struck dismay into the enemy, and decided the victory. For twelve years, he defended Croatia, over which he presided as ban, against the Turks, and repelled them, in 1562, from Szigeth. (q. v.) The greater part of Hungary, however, was already a Turkish pachalic, and the rest was obliged to pay tribute. Suleyman the Invincible was desirous of taking Szigeth. A defeat which the vanguard of the sultan sustained, at Sziklos, from the troops of Zrinyi, excited his wrath. The famous grand vizier, Mehmed Sokolowich, a renegade of Croatia, marched, with 65,000 men, to the attack of Szigeth. A bridge was thrown over the swollen Drave, under difficulties such as could be overcome only by the iron will of the Turkish despot; and the army passed over the river between August 1 and 9. Zrinyi collected his soldiers, 2500 in number. They swore-first he himself, then each soldier to his captain, and then all the captains to him-to die for their faith, their emperor and their country. Szigeth lies between two rivers, as on an island. When Zrinyi mustered his troop, they

He

amounted to 3000 men. The Turks bombarded, day and night, the "old city," which was but slightly fortified. The besieged made many daring sallies; but, after they had defended the place, inch by inch, and repulsed several assaults, they were obliged to burn it, and to retreat to the "new city." The Turks now raised mounds of earth, from which they could fire over the whole city. Zrinyi made every effort to prevent the Turks from filling up the fosse; but they were too numerous and indefatigable. now gave up the "new city" to the flames, and threw himself into the castle. The fire of the Turks was incessant, and they were also active in excavating mines. Zrinyi had no miners. The Hungarians made a sally, repulsed the Turks, spiked several of their cannons, but suffered a considerable loss. From August 26 to September 1, seven assaults, or more, were made daily; but the Hungarians always drove back the Turks. Many proposals for capitulation were made to Zrinyi; but he rejected them all; and even the sultan's threat to kill his son, whom the Turks pretended to have in their power, could not change his purpose. Soliman, exasperated at his obstinacy, offered 1000 gold guilders for Zrinyi's head, and finally died of rage, September 4. The grand vizier kept his death a secret. September 5, the Turks succeeded in burning the outer castle. Zrinyi retired to the inner works. These, however, contained no provision nor ammunition. On the seventh, the Turks undertook a general assault. The cinders fell even into the apartments of the count. The castle was in flames. Zrinyi now assembled his followers, and said, "Remember your oath. We must go forth, or burn, or perish with hunger. Let us die like men. Follow me, and do as I do." Saying this, he rushed out: his men, now reduced to 600, followed. He received two balls, but continued fighting until a third ball killed him. The whole garrison shared the fate of their commander. The Turks thronged into the burning castle, but Zrinyi had fired trains leading to the powder chambers. These exploded, and a large number of the enemies perished. Above 20,000 Turks had been killed or died of sickness during the siege. The Turks retained the piace until 1689. The aga of the janizaries fixed the head of Zrinyi before the tent of the sultan; but it was afterwards sent to the imperial general count Salm. The family of the Zrinyi became extinct in 1703

ZSCHOKKE, John Henry Daniel, was born in Magdeburg, in Prussia, in 1771. He lost his parents early, and, having received his education in the gymnasium of that city, quitted it suddenly, and remained, for some time, with a strolling troop of actors, for whom he prepared pieces. He subsequently entered the university of Frankfort on the Oder, where he studied, without any regular plan, philosophy, theology, history and belles-lettres. In 1792, he appeared as a public teacher, but was unable to obtain a fixed appointment. Some dramatic productions of his were published. In 1795, he was again disappointed, when he applied for a professorship in the university of Frankfort, having previously written against the religious edict of Wöllner. (q. v.) He now travelled, and, while on his way to Italy, was induced to stay in Switzerland, in order to take the direction of a seminary in Reichenau. During the disturbances which agitated the Helvetic republic in consequence of the French revolution, he received a great variety of appointments, some of an important character. He continues to live in Switzerland. Of his numerous works, we mention his History of the Grisons; Miscellany of the latest Information-a periodical which appeared from 1807 to 1813; his History of the Bavarian People and their Rulers, written from 1812 to 1818, and much esteemed; Contributions to the History of our Time-a periodical begun in 1817, and which ceased in 1823; History of Switzerland for the Swiss People, perhaps his best work, of which 5000 copies were sold immediately in Switzerland alone; Pictures of Switzerland (2 vols., Aaraw, 1824); and a great number of novels, tales, sketches, and small historical pieces. A collection of his writings appeared in 1825 et seq., in forty small volumes.

ZUG, the smallest of the Helvetic cantons, lies between the cantons of Zürich, Schweitz, Lucerne and Aargau. It has a superficial area of 116 square miles, and contains 14,710 inhabitants, of German origin, and of the Roman Catholic religion. In regard to its natural characters, it may be divided into two distinct parts, of which the north-western is composed of fertile valleys, and the southeastern of a mountainous land, in which, however, none of the summits rise above an elevation of 5000 feet, and the descent is gentle. A considerable part of the surface is occupied by lakes Zug and

Egeri. The inhabitants are employed almost exclusively in the breeding of cattle, and the cultivation of orchards. The constitution is democratic, the supreme power being exercised by popular representatives in different bodies. The quota of the canton in the army of th confederacy is 250 men, and the pecuniary contingent 1250 Swiss francs. The chief place is the town of the same name, with 2800 inhabitants, on lake Zug, in a delightful situation, at the foot of a mountain of the same name, surrounded by fertile meadows, orchards, vineyards, and pretty country houses. The lake bathes the foot of Righi on the south: behind rises mount Pilate; and, in the distance, the snowy summits of the Bernese Alps are seen towering up into the sky. lake is about ten miles long and from two to three wide.

The

This

ZUIDERSEE, or ZUYDER-ZEE (i. e. South sea); an inland sea or gulf of the North sea, or German ocean, surrounded chiefly by the Dutch provinces of Holland, Ŏveryssel, and Friesland. Its length, from north to south, is about 80 miles; its breadth varies from 15 to 30; superficial area, 1200 square miles. It is said to have been, in remote ages, a lake, until the barrier on the north-west, separating it from the German ocean, was swallowed up by some inundation of the sea. opinion is confirmed by the position of the islands Texel, Vlieland, &c., which, with intervening shoals and sand-banks, still form a kind of defence against the ocean. The trade of Amsterdam is carried on along the Zuyder-Zee, the entrance to which is at the Texel. The communication of this sea with the lake of Harlem is by the south, the inlet on the banks of which Amsterdam is built. In so level a country there are few rivers to flow into this sea: of those that do sc, the Yssel is the largest. The extent of the Zuyder-Zee exposes it to great agitation in tempestuous weather; yet, on proceeding from South Holland to Friesland, it is usual to sail across the southern part of it, called the Lemmer, instead of making the circuit by land. The Y is a gulf of the Zuyder-Zee, which forms the connexion with the lake of Harlem, and of which a part is called the Pampus.

ZUINGLIUS. (See Zwingli.)

ZÜLLICHAU, a town in the government of Frankfort, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, 112 miles from Berlin, 17 miles east of Crossen, lon. 15° 44' E., lat. 52° 8' N., a league from the Oder, has 4700 inhabitants, an academy, an orphan

asylum, and a seminary for school-masters. (See Schools.) It was formerly a thriving town, having many manufactories of broadcloth, large quantities of which were sent into Poland, Russia, and even China; but, since Russia has protected the Polish manufactures, Züllichau has much declined. The manufacture of silk, however, has in some measure supplied the place of that of cloth. On the banks of the Oder, much wine is made; but its quality is less to be commended than the industry of the cultivators. The town belongs, with the circle of the same name (300 square miles, with 30,000 inhabitants), to the duchy of Crossen, which, in 1538, fell to Brandenburg.

ZUMBO. (See Wax Figures.)

ZUMSTEEG, John Rodolphus, a German composer, the son of a servant, was born in 1760, in Sachsenflur, in Würtemberg, and educated in the ducal school near Stuttgart, enjoyed the instruction of the members of the ducal chapel, and, when yet a pupil, composed several operettas, cantatas and songs for the Robbers of Schiller, whose friend he was. He was then appointed violoncellist in the chapel of the duke, and, in 1792, concert-master and director of the opera. He died in 1802, of apoplexy. His songs and glees are some of the best which the Germans possess. He also composed operas and a mass, &c.

ZÜRICH; a canton of Switzerland, bounded north by Schaffhausen, north east and east by Thurgau, south-east by St. Gall, south by Schweitz and Zug, west by Aargau, and north-west by Baden (see Switzerland); square miles, 953; population, 224,150. The general aspect is pleasant, abounding in hills and valleys, but destitute of the magnificent scenery that marks the interior and south of Switzerland. The climate is mild, and the soil is tolerably fertile, and well cultivated. Rich pastures and extensive orchards abound, and, in some parts, there are fine tracts of wooded country. Cori, wine, cattle, butter and cheese are some of the principal products. The manufactures are considerable, of cotton, silk stuffs, linen, woollen and leather. The inhabitants are of German origin, and, with the exception of two societies, are Calvinists. The government, which was aristocratico-democratic in its administration, was new-modelled in 1831. The legislative power was vested in a great council of 212 members, 25 of whom formed an executive council, and court of final appeal.

ZÜRICH; a city of Switzerland, capital of the above canton, on the Limmat, at the north extremity of the lake of Zürich, in a narrow valley, between hills, 36 miles south-west of Constance, 55 northeast of Berne; lon. 8° 32′ E.; lat. 47° 22 N. It is pleasantly situated, fortified with a wall and ditch, tolerably neat and clean though most of the houses are old-fash ioned. It has four Reformed churches Its public buildings are not remarkable, but the scenery around is striking, and there are beautiful promenades. There are numerous private gardens; and in no place in Europe, except Haarlem, is more attention paid to fine flowers. Having the advantage of water communication by means of its lake and river, it has long been a place of manufacture and trade. Woollens, linens, cottons, leather and silk are its chief manufactures. Few places of the size of Zürich have surpassed it in the cultivation of literature. For five centuries it has been a town of literary distinction. It has a public library of 40,000 volumes, collegium humanitatis, gymnasium Carolinum, a school for the deaf and dumb, and one for the blind, a society of physics, economics, and natural history, a military school, a medical seminary, and various other institutions. Natives, Conrad Gesner, Solomon Gesner, John James Gesner, J. C. Lavater, Hirzel, and Pestalozzi. Population, 14,000. Zűrich has, in recent times, been the theatre of some interesting political events. In the war carried on by the second coalition against the French republic (1799), Zürich became an important point in the military operation. On the fourth and fifth of June, the archduke Charles gained some advantages over the French forces here, and, on the seventh, occupied Zürich. In August, it became the theatre of new conflicts; and, on the twenty-fourth of September, Masséna defeated here the allied forces of Russia and Austria, and compelled them to evacuate Switzerland.

ZÜRICH H; a lake of Switzerland, extending, in the form of a crescent, chiefly through the canton of Zürich, but partly also between those of Schweitz and St. Gall. It is divided into two parts by the strait of Rapperswyl, a quarter of a mile over, crossed by a bridge. In other places, the breadth varies to nearly five miles. The length is thirty miles. This lake, without rivalling that of Geneva in its sublime scenery, is one of the finest in Europe, being surrounded y a popu lous and well cultivated country, and the

prospects on its banks being richly varied. Behind and above the vine-covered hills which enclose it, loftier summits rise gradually higher and higher, till the eye finally rests on the glaciers of Glarus, Schweitz and the Grisons. The pros pect is finest from the lake itself, where, as you sail along, the scene is ever shifting and changing. Upon the little island of Ufnau, was formerly seen the tomb of Von Hutten, who died here in 1523.

ZURLA, Placidus, cardinal and vicargeneral of pope Leo XII, born in the Venetian territory, at Legnago, in 1759, and appointed cardinal May 16, 1823, is known by his scientific labors. He spent several years in investigating the accounts of the discoveries of the Venetian travelfers in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, who opened the way for Columbus and Vasco da Gama. He published the result of his inquiries in his treatises respecting Marco Polo (who penetrated as far as China, and first brought to Europe information of Japan), and a few other Venetian travellers (2 vols., 4to., with notes on subjects of natural history, by Rossi, 1823). He maintains, in these works, that the brothers Zeno (q. v.) discovered, in the northern parts of the Atlantic, the coasts of Newfoundland, and other parts of America, a hundred years before Columbus, and that the Scandinavian nations maintained an intercourse with the new world as late as 1380, which they had been acquainted with as early as 980 or 1000. The brothers Zeno collected their information on the island of Friseland, which Columbus also is said, by his son, to have visited for the same purpose. Zurla also gives the earliest Venetian chart, which confirms many statements of the Icelandic saga. The cardinal has also written treatises on the travels of Cadamosto and Rionciniotti in Eastern Africa. Zurla has had, for several years, the chief direction of the propaganda. From materials contained in the archives of this society, he prepared a discourse on the advantages which the sciences, particularly geography, owe to the Christian religion (1823).

ZURLITE; an imperfectly-described mineral, found in mount Vesuvius, with calcareous spar. It occu.s in rectangular prisms, or in botryoidal_masses, of an asparagus-green color. It yields to the knife, but emits sparkles with steel. Specific gravity, 3.274; melts with borax into a black glass.

ZURLO, Giuseppe, count de; an Italian politician, born, in 1759, at Naples. In

1783, when an earthquake had devastated many parts of the kingdom, and men of merit were wanted to heal the wounds of the provinces, Zurlo was sent into Calabria. He was afterwards made judge and, in 1798, was invited to become minister of finance; but he declined the offer. The king, however, when he fled to Sicily, left him in the administration of the finances. The people, entertaining unfounded suspicions against him, seized his person, and destroyed his house. After a few months, when the royal government was reestablished, he was made minister of finance. The country was inundated with paper money, the credit of the government destroyed, and large sums wanted to meet the public exigencies. Zurlo reestablished the finances, and refused the rewards offered him for his services, saying that he had always found himself honored by his poverty. In 1803, his ministry came to an end. He refused every offer of the new government, until, in 1809, Joseph made him minister of justice. He did much within the few months that he remained in this office; but the government, wishing to give him a more extended sphere of action, nade him minister of the interior. ment required an entire reorganizution. Zurlo took the best measures for the promotion of agriculture, manufactures, public instruction, the fine arts, finances, &c. He also put the hospital for the insade, at Aversa, on an excellent footing. On the restoration of the old government, he accompanied the queen (madame Murat) to Trieste, where he separated from her; fell sick in Venice, and, during his recovery, made a translation of Anacreon, which appeared there anonymously. He then lived for three years in Rome, and, in 1818, received permission to return to Naples, where he was made minister of the interior in 1820, but, in consequence of the attacks of fanatics, lost the office within a few months. After that time, he lived as a private man, in Naples, where he died in 1828.

This depart

ZURZACH; a small town in the canton of Aargau, in Switzerland, with 800 inhabitants; 33 miles east of Basle. Here is a church dedicated to St. Veronica, who is said to have wrought many miracles in Zurzach, and to have been buried there; whence it became a place of pilgrimage much resorted to by devout Catholics (See Veronica.) It still has two fairs, which originated from the former pilgrimages, and are much frequented by Ger man, Italian and French traders.