Wulfstan lived in the third of the three periods of Danish invasion, the first (787-835) being, according to Freeman (Norman Conquest 1. 44-5) that of simple plunder, the second (855-97) that of settlement, while the third (980–1016) was that of political conquest. A table of dates and events will throw light upon Wulfstan's homily below:

991. Battle of Maldon (see Select Translations from Old English Poetry, pp. 31 ff.). King Æthelred purchases peace from the Danes.

992. Desertion of Ealdorman Ælfric, commander of the fleet. 994. Swend and Olaf Tryggvason besiege London, and ravage Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Hampshire. Peace purchased. 1002. Æthelred orders a massacre of all the Danes in England. 1003. Swend captures Exeter. Treachery of Hugh, a Frenchman, reeve of the city. Renewed treachery of Ealdorman Ælfric. 1005. The worst famine in England that any one could remember. 1006. Kent and Sussex ravaged. The English army melts away without striking a blow.

1007. Tribute paid to the Danes.

1009. Wulfnoth, a captain in the English fleet, flees with twenty ships. Eighty more, sent to capture him, are destroyed in a

storm.

1010. Treachery of Ealdorman Eadric, preventing an attack on the Danish fleet under Thurkill.

1011. The worst year of all. Sixteen shires are ravaged, defense being futile.

1013. Swend and Cnut sail up the Humber, receive the submission of all England north of Watling Street, the South assenting. 1014. Wulfstan's Sermon to the English.

1016. King Æthelred dies, after his return from Normandy, whither he had fled. Cnut contests the kingdom with Edmund Ironside. Death of Edmund.

The homilies of Wulfstan have not been perfectly distinguished from those of others. Kinard (Study of Wulfstan's Homilies, Baltimore, 1897), the latest investigator, accepts fifteen homilies as genuine, and finds nine others which exhibit certain characteristics of his style (p. 60). Napier's edition, Berlin, 1883, is the standard; our homily is No. 33 (pp. 156–67). It was first published by Elstob in 1701 as Sermo Lupi Episcopi, and may be

found in Ebeling's (1847), Rieger's (1861), and Sweet's (1876) Readers. See Wülker, Grundriss, pp. 481–3, and Kinard (as above), from whom many of our facts are drawn. The Old English Chronicle for the period may be consulted with advantage.

Wulfstan's style is marked by much alliteration and assonance, and by a decided rhythm, with balanced clauses; on the other hand, he has almost no tropes or similes.

WULFSTAN'S SERMON TO THE ENGLISH

AT A TIME WHEN THE DANES ESPECIALLY PERSECUTED THEM, WHICH WAS IN THE YEAR 1014 FROM THE INCARNATION OF OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST

Dearly beloved, understand the truth: this world is in haste, and drawing nigh the end. Hence is the later in the world ever the worse, so that things must needs wax very evil before the coming of Antichrist. Likewise, consider earnestly that for these many years the devil has led this people too widely astray; that men have held little faith towards one another, for all their fair speaking; that injustice has too much prevailed in the land; and that they have been few who thought upon a remedy as diligently as they ought. Daily has evil been heaped upon evil, and men have worked iniquity and manifold unrighteousness far too generally throughout this whole nation.

On account of these things we have suffered many losses and indignities; and if we are to expect any relief, we must deserve it better at God's hands than we have done hitherto. For with great deserts have we earned the misery which lies over us; and with exceeding great deserts we must obtain the cure from God, if our condition is henceforth to become better. We know very well that a wide breach demands much mending, and a great fire abundant water if the fire is to be in any wise quenched.

The necessity is urgent upon every man henceforth to keep God's law with diligence, and fulfil God's commandments with uprightness.

Among the heathen no man dares keep back either little or much of that which is ordained for the worship of idols; but we too often everywhere withhold the dues of God. Among the heathen, men dare not diminish any of those things, within or without, which are brought to the idols and appointed for a sacrifice; but we have clean despoiled the inward and the outward of God's house. Moreover, the servants of God are everywhere deprived of reverence and the right of giving sanctuary; but the servants of idols among the heathen, men dare in no manner offend, as men now too generally offend the servants of God in places where Christians ought to keep God's law and afford protection to His servants.

I tell you the truth-a remedy must be found. Too long have the laws of God been declining on every side among this people; the laws of the nation have lapsed unduly; sanctuaries lie too little protected; and the houses of God are clean despoiled of their ancient tribute, and stripped within of all things seemly. Men of religion have this long time been greatly despised; widows wrongfully forced to marry; poor and afflicted men betrayed and grievously ensnared, and sold undeservedly far away from this country, into the power of strangers; children in the cradle enslaved, with bitter injustice, on pretense of petty theft; freeman's right wrested away, thrall-right restricted, alms-right greatly diminished. To sum up most briefly, the laws of God are hated, and instruction despised. For this we all suffer many indignities, as should be evident to every one; and though men deem it not, the loss will be common to all this nation, unless God shall save.

Surely it is plain and manifest, in the case of all of us, that we have hitherto offended more than we amended; and for this cause our nation has endured many inroads. This long time nothing has thriven at home or abroad, but on every hand have been frequent ravaging and famine, burning and bloodshed, robbery and slaughter, plague and pestilence, murrain and disease. Slander and malice and rapine of robbers have sorely afflicted us; tempests oftentimes have blighted our harvests: because, it would seem, for these many years this land has witnessed manifold iniquities and unstable faith between men everywhere. Many a time has kinsman protected his kinsman no more than a stranger, nor father his son, nor, at times, son his own father, nor one brother the other. No one of us has directed his life as he ought, neither those in orders according to the rules, nor laymen according to the law. No man has purposed toward his neighbor so uprightly as he ought, but well-nigh every one of us has betrayed and injured his fellow in word and deed.

How wickedly has nearly every one attacked his neighbor with shameful calumnies, and worse if he might! Here in our land are great breaches of faith toward God and man; and many among us are traitors to their lords in divers fashions. Worst of all treasons in the world it is that a man should betray the soul of his lord; and there is also another very great treason in the world, that a man should plot against his lord's life, or drive him living out of the country; and both these have been wrought in this land. Edward men plotted against, and afterward murdered, and then burned; and Æthelred they drove from his home. Too many sponsors and godchildren have been slain throughout this nation; too many holy places far and wide have perished, because in the past certain men have been lodged

there, such as ought not to have been if reverence were to be shown the sanctuary of God; too many Christian folk have been commonly sold into slavery. Ye may believe that all this is hateful to God.

Yet more we know too well where the wretched thing has come to pass that a father has sold his son for a price, or a son his mother and brothers into the power of strangers. Whoever will may understand that all these are monstrous and terrible deeds; and still worse and more manifold afflict this nation. Many are forsworn and liars; pledges are broken commonly; and it is plain in this land that the wrath of God lies bitterly upon us. He that can, let him understand.

Alas, can greater shame befall any man, by God's anger, than often befalls us for our just deserts that if a thrall escape from his lord, and forsake Christendom to go over to the Danes, and it come about afterward that thane and thrall meet in battle, then the thane, if he be foully slain by the thrall, must lie without any wergild for his kinsmen ; but if the thane foully slay the thrall whom he once owned, he must pay wergild as for a thane. Degrading laws and shameful tribute are wonted with us, because of God's anger, as whoever is able may understand; and a host of calamities continually attack this nation.

This long time nothing has thriven at home or abroad, but harrying and hatred have been constant on every hand. The English have been long without victory and too sorely dismayed, by reason of the wrath of God. The sea-robbers, by God's permission, have been so strong that one of them will often put to flight ten of us in battle sometimes less, sometimes more and all because of our sins. Often ten or twelve of them, one after another, will insult and shamefully abuse the wife of a thane, or perhaps his daughter or