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perfecting of fire-arms and artillery, and in the protection of ships and forts by armour plating.

We may head the list of public buildings belonging to the Hanoverian period with Guy's Hospital, founded by a bookseller of that name in the reign of George I. Under George II. Old Westminster Bridge was opened in 1750, the Foundling Hospital in 1756, and the British Museum in 1759; the Eddystone Lighthouse was completed in 1759, and Old Blackfriars Bridge in 1770. In the reign of George III. the London Docks (1805), Waterloo Bridge (1817), and Southwark Bridge (1819) were completed. The Caledonian Canal was opened in 1822, and a fine suspension bridge was erected over the Menai Straits (1825).

During the reigns of George IV. and William IV. the National Gallery was founded (1824), New London Bridge built (1825), and the Zoological Gardens opened (1827).

The International Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862 greatly conduced to the progress of invention in every branch; the building in which the first was held, constructed chiefly of glass and iron after a design by Sir Joseph Paxton, may be regarded as a successful experiment.

The Exhibition of the present year (1871) differs somewhat from its predecessors. It forms the first of a series of International Exhibitions of Industry and the Fine Arts, to be repeated annually, and to be limited to two or three industries only; but including every year Fine Art (in a liberal sense of the word), scientific invention, and horticulture. The manufactures of the present year are confined to woollens, worsteds, and educational appliances. Part of the articles are displayed in a building opened by the Queen in 1871, and known as the Royal Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences, and the remainder in buildings and galleries disposed around the Gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society. In the vicinity of these structures, and marking the site of the First Exhibition, is a monument erected in memory of the late Prince Consort.

The Thames Tunnel, designed by Mr. I. K. Brunel, was begun in 1825, though not completed till 1853. A tubular bridge over the Menai Straits was erected in 1850, and new bridges at Westminster (1860) and Blackfriars (1869) have taken the place of the old ones. The Thames Embankment, recommended by Sir Christopher Wren as far back as 1666, was commenced in 1864, and opened in 1870; and a Metropolitan Railway, commenced in 1860, is now being extended underground in a circle round London. On the southern side of the Thames Embankment is the New St. Thomas's Hospital, opened by the Queen in 1871.

APPENDIX IX.

CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS.

A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL SOVEREIGNS CONTEMPORARY WITH ENGLISH MONARCHS WHO HAVE EXERCISED AN INFLUENCE OVER ENGLISH HISTORY.

WILLIAM I.

Malcolm III. of Scotland, who married Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, through whom the present line claims its right by descent from Alfred. (See p. 13, s. 39.)

HENRY I.

Henry V. of Germany, who married Maud, daughter of Henry I., thence commonly known as the Empress Maud.

STEPHEN.

David I. of Scotland, uncle of the Empress Maud, defeated by Stephen at the battle of the Standard (1138).

HENRY II.

Louis VII. of France, whose divorced wife, Eleanor of Guienne, was married by Henry II. (1151).

William the Lion, of Scotland, who was taken prisoner at the battle of Alnwick (1175), and compelled to do homage to Henry II.

RICHARD I.

Philip II. of France, who engaged with Richard I. in the Crusades, but returned after the taking of Acre (1192).

Herry VI. of Germany, to whom Richard was delivered by Leopold, Duke of Austria, and by whom he was confined in a prison in the Tyrol (1192).

JOHN.

Philip II. of France, who took from John, Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine (1204), and was authorised to dethrone him by Pope Innocent III.

Pope Innocent III., who placed the kingdom under an interdict (1208-13), in consequence of John's refusal to receive Stephen Langton, the Papal nominee to the see of Canterbury.

HENRY III.

Louis VIII. of France, son of Philip II., who invaded England at the death of John, but was defeated at Lincoln by the Earl of Pembroke, and off Kent by Hubert de Burgh (1217).

EDWARD I

John Baliol, of Scotland, who was defeated and deposed by Edward I. (1296).

EDWARD II.

Robert I. of Scotland, by whom Edward II, was defeated at Bannockburn (1314).

EDWARD III.

Philip VI. of France, defeated at the battle of Cressy (1346). David II. of Scotland, who was taken prisoner at the battle of Neville's Cross (1346).

John II, of France, taken prisoner at the battle of Poictiers (1356).

Pedro the Cruel, King of Castile, whom the Black Prince assisted against Du Guesclin (1367).

HENRY V.

Charles VI. of France, defeated by Henry V. at Agincourt (1415).

HENRY VI.

Charles VII. of France, who, with the help of the Maid of Orleans, ultimately drove the English from that country.

HENRY VII.

Ferdinand II. of Arragon, whose daughter (Catherine) married Henry's eldest son, Arthur (1501), and, after his death, became the first wife of Henry VIII. (1509).

James IV. of Scotland, who married Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. (1502), and thus originated the claim of the Stuarts to the English throne.

HENRY VIII.

Ferdinand II. of Arragon, Henry's ally in the war with Louis XII.

Maximilian I. of Germany, Henry's ally in the war with Louis XII.

James IV. of Scotland, defeated and slain at Flodden Field (1513).

Louis XII. of France, defeated by Henry VIII. and Maximilian I. at the battle of Guinegate (1513); married Mary, Henry's

sister (1514).

Charles V. of France and Spain, who made an alliance with Henry in 1520, at the death of Maximilian.

Francis I. of France, who had a famous interview with Henry at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520.

Pope Leo X., who gave Henry the title of Defender of the Faith' (1521).

Pope Clement VII., who opposed Henry's divorce from Catherine of Arragon (1534).

James V. of Scotland, defeated at Solway Moss (1542).

EDWARD VI.

Mary, Queen of Scots, whose forces, under the Regent Murray, were defeated by the Protector Somerset at Pinkie (1547).

MARY I

Philip II. of Spain, to whom Mary I. was married (1554).

ELIZABETH.

Mary, Queen of Scots, who was executed by Elizabeth's order at Fotheringay Castle (1587).

Philip II. of Spain, whose 'Invincible Armada' was defeated by Elizabeth (1588).

James VI. of Scotland, who succeeded, at Elizabeth's decease, to the English throne (1603).

CHARLES II.

Louis XIV. of France, contemporary of the entire House of Stuart, James I. excepted.

WILLIAM III. AND MARY II.

Louis XIV., with whom William went to war on account of his advocacy of the Catholic Stuart line (1690).

ANNE.

Louis XIV., defeated in various battles by Marlborough, during the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-13).

Charles VI. of Germany, whose Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 produced the War of the Austrian Succession under George II.

GEORGE I.

Philip V. of Spain, who caused the Triple and Quadruple Alliances (1717, 1718).

GEORGE II.

Maria Theresa of Austria, whose accession to the Austrian throne gave rise to the War of the Austrian Succession, in which England and Holland espoused her cause against the Elector of Bavaria and Frederick II. of Prussia, who were supported by France and Spain (1740–1748).

Louis XV., whose forces under Marshal Saxe defeated George II. at the battle of Fontenoy (1745).

Charles VII. of Germany, Elector of Bavaria, opposed to England in the War of the Austrian Succession.

Frederick II. of Prussia, opposed to us in the War of the Austrian Succession, but our ally in the Seven Years' War (1756–63).

GEORGE III.

Louis XVI, of France.

Napoleon I., Emperor of France.

Louis XVIII. of France, restored after Napoleon's downfall. Ferdinand VII. of Spain, in whose cause this country undertook the Peninsular War (1808-14).

VICTORIA.

Napoleon III., Emperor of France, who, together with Victor Emmanuel of Italy and Abdul Medjid, Sultan of Turkey, engaged with England in the war of the Crimea (1854-56) against Nicholas I. of Russia and Alexander II. his son.

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