by capillarity. Its use is not frequent, however, being largely limited to war-ships.

Exterior Finishes.- The artistic effect of a building depends more upon its color than upon its form either in general lines or detail. This is due to the fact that a good color sense is commoner than an appreciation of line and form. So true is this that many excellent designs have been utterly ruined by execution in unpleasing materials, and many meretricious designs receive public commendation entirely due to their satisfactory color effect. The search for novel and beautiful, as well as durable effects, has led to a great multiplication and improvement of materials.

Of all exterior materials the granites easily hold first place for buildings requiring dignity and durability. The finer granites come from New England, and range from various tones of white, through the deepening grays, into the dark reds, greens, and blacks. Many of the granites present beautiful surfaces when polished, and in general combine well in color scheme with almost any other material. The southern granites, so called, are not truly granites in the geological sense. They lack warmth and brilliancy of color, and by reason of their softness stain easily in a harsh climate or smoky atmosphere.

Sandstones, such as those from Ohio, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts, are reliable materials, the particles being well cemented together. They vary in color from the whites to the browns, and have practically superseded the Connecticut brown-stone used extensively in the 'sixties and 'seventies, but whose loose stratification resulted in early deterioration upon exposure.

Of the limestones, that from Indiana has had great popularity by reason of its softness for cutting when fresh, the large sizes in which it is obtainable, and, in the buff varieties, its beautiful color. The stone hardens upon exposure to the air, but its color changes, improving for a year or two, to become almost black after a period of 7 to 10 years.

The white marbles of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Georgia are thoroughly reliable, but discolor without assuming the soft warm tones of the old marble structures of Greece and Italy.

Gneisses abound throughout the Eastern States, some of them approaching very closely in texture to the true granites..

For durability and permanency of color, combined with economy, no exterior facing can surpass natural red brick. The appreciation of red brick has fortunately developed beyond the point where the smooth Philadelphia pressed variety is considered the only brick desirable for the finest work, so that we now have reds toning into the browns and purples, and combined often with dark headers, from which it is possible to lay up a simple surface full of artistic interest. Outside the plain red, there is a wide variety of brick within certain limits; whites, buffs, browns, or grays are easily obtainable both in the plain colors and mottled, and made by either the wet or the dry process. Color, width, and style of mortar joints, if used knowingly, can be made to intensify or soften the natural color of the brick. American enameled brick holds its own with the English, and is invaluable for light-shafts and damp places.

Nearly all makes, however, craze or chip in time.

Architectural terra-cotta, as an exterior finish, easily claims first rank in point of development. Many steel structures are covered entirely with it, excepting perhaps parts near the ground, subject to abrasion. It can be made in almost any color by means of "slips" or "glazes," and it lends itself readily to decoration. The use of terra-cotta is of advantage to the architect, in that he can see the models for every part of the work as they are in process, and vary them to his satisfaction before they are finally cast. Economy in the use of terra-cotta comes chiefly from minimizing the number of molds; but this must be guarded against, for, if pushed to excess, monotony is likely to result.

Ornamental bronze, copper, and iron work, through improved processes of manipulation, have added greatly to the possible richness of exterior effect.

Outside enclosures of sheet metal, such as iron or aluminum, are rarely aesthetic. Corrugated sheet iron has been used extensively for freight sheds, wharf enclosures, and similar ordinary constructions, where no effort for good looks has been made. The enclosure of steel-skeleton buildings with metal is not to be counted upon where such buildings are tenanted, as it is too great a conductor of heat.

Rough-cast and plaster work are most admirable and sympathetic as exterior wall finishes, where the extremes of temperature from winter to summer are not too great. Even adobe structures are possible in the South and West, but their use is most limited. Rough-cast or pebble-dash is applied to both masonry walls and lath; it is more durable on masonry, as the expansion and shrinkage of lath tend to disintegrate the mortar. Rough-cast is combined frequently with timber work in imitation of the old English half-timber constructions, and is specially adapted to domestic buildings of the freer country sort.

Concrete walls, where of the right texture and color, such as that made from coquina in Florida, give a pleasing effect.

Roof coverings comprise tin, copper, slag, tiles, slate, and shingles, each having its own appropriateness. Copper is the only permanent one of those mentioned, and slag is the next best. Tiles and slate require constant repairs, and shingles rarely last more than 20 years. Shingles lend themselves admirably to staining, and are deservedly popular. Thatch is attempted where picturesqueness is demanded.

A roof interesting from the constructive standpoint is that commonly used on the steelskeleton building. It is known as actinolite, and consists of a number of thicknesses of heavy felts bedded upon a smooth Portland-cement surface, and covered with a roofing cement on which are laid vitrified tiles with the joints. thoroughly filled, practically forming a pavement.

Interior Finishes.- For ordinary buildings the interior finish of floors, walls, and ceilings must necessarily be simple, consisting of cement or wood for the floors, and plaster for the walls and ceilings, except that in the case of mill construction walls are usually made of hard red brick, pointed inside the same as outside, and

ceilings consist of the dressed undersurface of the floor planking white-washed, painted, or varnished.

Cement floors are the most permanent, particularly where they are subjected to moisture, although the hard pine and maple flooring commonly used is less tiresome to walk on and is sufficiently durable.

The so-called patent plasters have come largely into use by reason of their hardness and quick-setting quality. They are mixed by by machine in fixed proportions, and are therefore more dependable in quality than the ordinary lime mortar. If applied to lath, the patent plasters require that the lath, if of wood, shall be wet before application, or, if of metal, that the metal be of heavy threads, as the finer wire cloth is sometimes eaten away by the ingredients of the plaster.

Tiles, whether of marble, ceramic, or glass, form excellent interior finishes, except that small tiles for floors are likely to loosen, and frequent joints in tiling become unsightly through discoloration. The glass tile known as "opalite" produces a finish similar to enameled brick, and has been shown in some cases to be more lasting. Interlocking rubber tiles are desirable in cases where there is risk of slipping, such as for elevator floors. They are also good deadeners of sound.

Beautiful effects of mosaic, both of marble and of glass, are easily obtainable-a great variety of color and design is largely in their favor. All of these applied finishes require a solid base, preferably of masonry or concrete.

The variety of woods for interior finish is almost without limit, and has been greatly increased by staining and by methods of finish.

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In no department of interior ornamentation has greater progress been made than in plaster work a system which can be pushed to almost any point of elaboration, and which lends itself perfectly to painted decoration. In fact, there are few materials that cannot be simulated in plaster if the decoration is clever.

The field of interior decoration was never wider, and the knowledge of the application of leathers, stamped, modeled, and woven fabrics, and the thousand and one other forms of wall applications, never better understood.

In marble for interior use America is not particularly fortunate. Granite and limestone produce satisfactory results, but most of the American marbles are cold and lacking in richness of texture. Among the best marbles are the Knoxville Gray, and a few of the whites. For the more beautiful effects recourse must be had to the imported marbles, such as Sienna, Numidian, Pavonnezza, Alps Green, and others. EDGAR V. SEELER, Architect. Building and Loan Associations, co-operative organizations, originally designed to aid their members in procuring homes, at the lowest cost, and on the easiest terms. Later developments gave them some of the functions of a bank for savings. The associations are a development, dating from about 1835, when a few experimental ones existed in the United States, the movement beginning in Pennsylvania. The original associations proving successful, plans were gradually improved, until by 1850 they became an established part of American institu

tions. They have been operated under various titles, besides the above, as mutual loan associations, home assistance associations, co-operative savings and loan associations, and cooperative banks, the latter title being popular in New England.

The basic plan of these associations is the issuing of stock, which is paid for in monthly instalments, and the loaning of the money thus raised to shareholders, borrowers paying twice as much per month as lenders. It has been common to give the shares a maturing value of $200 each, on which the holders pay $1 per month as long as they are lenders or investors, and $2 per month, as soon as they become borrowers on their stock. In addition to the $2, the borrower is also liable to have to pay a premium to secure his loan, when there are more shareholders seeking loans than there is money to loan.

Under such an arrangement an association received an average of $1.50 per month per share, and in the course of a little more than 11 years this was theoretically sufficient to bring the shares to par value. In practice, the shares would sometimes run out in 10 years, if premiums on loans ran high, and sometimes 12 or more years were required for shares to reach the $200 value, if the association had passed through hard times. When the shares reached the $200, or other maturing value, the lenders received their money back, and the borrowers had their loans canceled. Under the early plans, the maturing of the shares wound up the association. This was a hardship to many, and as a result the issuing of shares in annual series has become common. This enables outsiders to come in and take shares any time a new series is opened, or to purchase the most recent series, by paying the dues for the number of months such series has run.

The legislatures of the various States have made laws rendering easy the forming of these associations, because they have proven to be a good means of enabling wage workers to build and own their own homes. The parties interested manage their own affairs, and as the money is loaned out as fast as it comes in, there is seldom any loss by peculation. To illustrate how these associations assist a man of small means to build and pay for a home, let us follow the system from his point of view. Suppose he has a lot of land, for which he has paid $400. He can subscribe for five shares of an association, of the par value of $200 each, paying therefor $5 per month. Every month, or every few months, there will be money to be loaned, and he attends the meetings, and when he thinks the premiums are low, he bids in a $1,000 loan. If he has bid 10 cents premium on this, he must pay $2.10 each month on his shares, from the time he receives the use of the money. As a matter of fact he does not handle the money, but having bid successfully, and the directors having passed upon his lot and proposed house as a safe loan, he sets a builder to work, and his house is put up, the association taking a mortgage on it for $1,000, and the builder collecting his $1,000 from the association. Every month he pays his $10.50 into the association, just as if he were paying rent, and in 10 or 11 years the shares mature, and the home is paid for.

The plan appeals to the wage worker, because of the easy payments. It appeals to small lenders, because it affords them a sort of savings

walls, and the stairs also must be of incombustible materials. Fire-proof floors are now commonly constructed of rolled iron or steel I-beams. The first wrought-iron I beams rolled in this country were made by Peter Cooper, at his mills in Trenton, N. J., about 1860. The Phonix Iron Company, of Pennsylvania, began to roll them about the same time. Prior to that date there was a very limited number of fireproof buildings in this country. Those which did exist, chiefly belonged to the government. In the early fire-proof structures erected in New York-the Cooper Union building, Harper's publishing building, and the Historical Library building the iron floor-beams are of a shape known as deck-beams, being very similar in section to an ordinary rail, only deeper. The depths of I-beams have been increased from 6 and 7 inches up to 24 inches, and mild steel has displaced wrought-iron. Eastern and western rolling-mills yearly turn out an enormous quantity of rolled steel I-beams for use in buildings. Before the time when rolled beams could be expeditiously procured and at moderate prices, cast-iron beams were used. When the openings to be spanned were of considerable width, bowstring-girders, or arch-shaped castings with horizontal wrought-iron tie-rods connecting the ends, were commonly used. It is admitted by all who are competent to judge that wrought-iron or steel is superior for use where the load tends to tear the metal asunder; and in course of time cast-iron for beams and girders became almost entirely superseded by rolled wrought-iron, and later on by rolled steel. use of cast-iron beams, lintels, and columns in commercial buildings kept a number of large foundries in New York busy for many years. More than half a century ago the Jackson Architectural Iron Works, now a corporation, were started, being practically the pioneer foundry for the manufacture of iron work for buildings. It was in these works that the first entire iron front was made, from drawings furnished by the introducer, James Bogardus. Several firms that became quite renowned in the line of architectural ironwork - among them J. B. & W. W. Corneli — procured their cast-iron work for many years from the Jackson foundry. Iron fronts became popular and New York supplied the demand from Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, and St. Louis, until finally their manufacture was taken up in every section of the country. During the later years architects have shown a preference for fronts of brick with terra-cotta or stone for trimmings, and cast-iron fronts have largely gone out of fashion, perhaps later on to be revived, particularly for commercial structures, as cast-iron has in its favor unequaled advantages of lightness, strength, durability, economy, incombustibility, and ready renovation. John Roach, who became celebrated as an iron ship-builder, started in the foundry business in a small way in New York about the year 1840, making castings for builders' uses; but he veered off into ships' castings and machinery, and finally into building ships.

The

The Jackson foundry was started to manufacture grates and fenders, and during all the years of its existence has continued that as one of its principal branches. It was the establishment of a new industry in this country, for these things were all imported from abroad. While fireplace fronts can scarcely be included

among "building materials," in the ordinary understanding of that term, yet they go to make up a permanent and necessary part of buildings. There are a number of other adjuncts to an edifice that cannot be included as building materials, but each of which makes progressive steps in providing useful, convenient, and comfortable structures. In a modern building electric light and steam-heat are looked for as matters of course; and mail-chutes, telephone, and electric call service are developments of recent years. In dwelling-houses gas-stoves are supplanting coal ranges for cooking; the oldfashioned pan water-closet has given way to the S trap-bowl; bath-tubs are of enameled iron, solid porcelain, or marble, instead of wood lined with copper or other metal; pneumatic or electric appliances open the street door at will; locks that are unpickable and burglar alarms secure reasonable safety from would-be intruders; and in a variety of ways the conveniences, comforts, security, and healthfulness of homes have been added to of late by provisions made in the planning and construction of buildings.

Formerly French or English plate glass was demanded for every good building. American plate glass slowly but surely worked to the front rank in the quality, and has become one of our great home industries. The invention of a fireproof-glass, such as is made by enclosing a wire screen in the sheet of glass, has worked a revolution in interior construction, so that glass is now used where formerly only a solid fireproof construction was allowable. In art glass work for windows, American manufacturers and American artists produce the equal of the best made in any other country.

Marbles in great variety, sandstones in almost every color, and granite of various hues are quarried in all directions; and through cheap transportation by water or rail, every section of the country has an available supply of every kind and color of stone for architectural effect in buildings. Stone is planed and carved by machinery more accurately and quicker than by hand. The labor thus saved, and the consequent cheapening of molded and carved stone, have increased the consumption and given employment to a far greater number of workmen than would otherwise have been the case. The world's experience has shown, moreover, that while machinery increases production, it also opens new fields for useful labor, and the cheapening of the cost of manufactured products proportionately increases their consumption by bringing them within the reach of a greater number of persons. Not only in stone, but in every kind of material which enters into the construction and finishing of buildings, has machinery reduced the cost. The army of workmen is vastly greater in numbers, and wages are higher than when hand labor had the field entirely to itself.

Wood moldings were laboriously worked out by hand in former years. Machinery changed all that, so that to-day a carpenter would as soon think of hewing out timber from the log by hand as to work out by hand the trim for a house. From the molding-mill the trim now comes all ready to be put in place. Hard woods, especially ash and oak, have largely taken the place of white pine for trim, and it is due to machinery that doors and architraves around openings can be obtained in hard woods at less