the Medical Profession to Women'; The Human Element in Sex'; 'Decay of Municipal Representative Institutions.'

Blackwell, Lucy Stone. See STONE, LUCY B. Blackwell, Thomas, Scottish writer: b. Aberdeen, 4 Aug. 1701; d. Edinburgh, 1757. After receiving the rudiments of his education at the grammar-school of his native city, he entered Marischal College, where he took the degree of A.M. in 1718. A separate professorship of Greek had not existed in this seminary previous to 1700. Blackwell, having turned his attention to Greek, was honored in 1723, when only 22 years of age, with a Crown appointment to this chair. His Inquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer' was published at London in 1737. A second edition of the work appeared in 1746, and shortly after Proofs of the Inquiry into Homer's Life and Writings. In 1748 he published anonymously Letters Concerning Mythology.' In the course of the same year he was advanced to be principal of his college. In 1750 he opened a class for the instruction of the students in ancient history, geography, and chronology. In 1752 he obtained the degree of LL.D., and in the subsequent year published, in quarto, the first volume of Memoirs of the Court of Augustus.' A second volume appeared in 1755, and a third, which was posthumous, and left unfinished by the author, was prepared for the press by John Mills, Esq., and published in 1764.

Blackwell's Island, N. Y., an island in the East River belonging to New York city. It has an area of about 120 acres, and contains the penitentiary, almshouse, lunatic asylum for fe

males, workhouse, blind asylum, hospital for incurables, and a convalescent hospital. Nearly all of these buildings were erected from granite quarried on the island, by convict labor, the style of architecture being of a turreted and battlemented design of the feudal character. The island is bordered by a heavy granite sea wall, also built by the convicts, and a large amount of farming and gardening is carried on by inmates of the penitentiary.

Blackwood, Adam, Scottish writer: b. Dunfermline, 1539; d. 1613. Scotland, during his youth, was undergoing the agonies of the Reformation. He therefore found it no proper sphere for his education, and went to Paris, where, by the liberality of his youthful sovereign, Queen Mary, then residing at the Court of France, he was enabled to complete his studies, and to go through a course of civil law at the University of Toulouse. Having now acquired some reputation for learning and talent, he was patronized by James Beaton, the expatriated Archbishop of Glasgow, who recommended him very warmly to Queen Mary and her husband the dauphin, by whose influence he was chosen a member of the Parliament of Poitiers, and afterward appointed to be professor of civil law at that court. His first work was one entitled 'De Vinculo Religionis et Imperii, Libri Duo' (Paris 1575), to which a third book was added in 1612. His next work was entitled 'Apologia pro Regibus, and professed to be an answer to George Buchanan's work, De Jure Regni apud Scotos. He next published, in French, an account of the death of his benefactress, Queen Mary, under the title. Martyre de Maria Stuart Reyne d'Escosse (Antwerp, 8vo. 1588).

At the end of the volume is a collection of poems in Latin, French, and Italian, upon Mary and Elizabeth; in which the former princess is praised for every excellence, while her murderess is characterized by every epithet expressive of indignation and hate. In 1644, 30 years after his death, appeared his 'Opera Omnia,' in one volume, edited by the learned Naudeus, who prefixes an elaborate eulogium upon the author.

Blackwood, William, Scottish bookseller, known as the projector and publisher of 'Blackwood's Magazine': b. Edinburgh, 20 Nov. 1776; d. 16 Sept. 1834. He settled in his native city as a bookseller in 1804, and soon added the trade of a publisher to his original business. The first number of 'Blackwood's Magazine' ap peared on April 1817, and from the first was conducted in the Tory interest. It was started just at the time when the general peace which had been established in Europe was beginning to reanimate the hopes of the Whigs, and when it was all the more necessary for the Tories to defend by the press that preponderance which they still held in Parliament. Mr. Blackwood was fortunate enough to secure as his coadjutors in his new literary undertaking most of the leading authors of the day belonging to the Tory party, among them Sir Walter Scott, John Gibson Lockhart, Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Prof. Wilson (Christopher North), De Quincey (the English Opium-eater), and others. All that was connected with the management of the magazine he took into his own hands, and he

himself selected the articles for each number a task for which he was admirably qualified, for although he wrote little himself, he was an

admirable judge of literary works. The new campaign against the Edinburgh 'Review, commagazine on its first appearance entered upon a bating both its political views and its literary decisions. From the first it attracted a great deal of attention, and its success was decided by the appearance of the 'Noctes Ambrosianæ, 2 which the current questions in politics and litseries of articles in the form of dialogues, in erature were discussed with the most pungent sarcasm and inexhaustible humor. The brilliant articles of Dr. Maginn added not a little to its reputation, and constantly, as the original contributors withdrew, new and valuable accessions were made to the staff of its supporters. After his death his business continued to be carried on by his sons, and the magazine, although it has perhaps lost some of its former reputation (or notoriety), still keeps its place as one of the leading periodicals.

Blackwood. See DALBERGIA.
Blackwood's Magazine.

WILLIAM.

See BLACKWOOD,

Bladder, the muscular organ that in man and the lower animals holds the urine. The kidneys secrete urine constantly, the bladder stores it and only empties itself at more or less definite intervals. In man the bladder is a flattened rounded to conical organ about the size of an orange, and holding under normal conditions about 16 ounces of urine (one pint). It is situated in the lower portion of the abdominal cavity just behind the pubic bone, which serves as a protection. Its general shape is rounded triangular, the flat side being above, the ureters leading from the kidneys entering at the corners; the pointed end corresponding to the

transportation is effected passively, the new host eating the flesh or organs of the animal infected with Cysticerci. The tapeworms, therefore, are principally found in the Carnivora, the Insectivora, and the Omnivora, which receive the bladderworms in the flesh of the animals on which they feed. The vesicles are digested in the stomach, and the cestode head becomes free as a scolex. The latter is, perhaps, protected from the too intense action of the gastric juice by its calcareous concretions, and at once enters the small intestine, fastens itself to the intestinal wall, and grows by gradual segmentation into a tapeworm. From the scolex the chain of proglottides proceeds as the result of a growth in length accompanied by segmentation, a process which is to be looked upon as a form of asexual reproduction (budding in the direction of the long axis). The development of the scolex is then to be explained as a metamorphosis, characterized by the individualization of certain stages of the development. But the whole lifehistory is a case of metagenesis, inasmuch as the sexual proglottides alternate with the asexual

scolex. See TAPEWORM.

Bladderwort, Utricularia, a genus of about 150 species of largely aquatic herbs of the natural order Lentibulariacea, widely distributed throughout the world, but especially abundant in the tropics. The aquatic species are remarkable for the little, sometimes valved, bladders which entrap and digest aquatic insects and other water animals. The bladders which are at first filled with water become inflated with air at flowering time so that the flower instead of being submerged like the rest of the plant, is raised above the surface until after blossoming, when water again fills the bladders, the plants sinking to the bottom, where the seeds are ripened. These aquatic species, of which about a dozen with yellow or blue flowers are natives of the United States, are common in ditches, ponds, and marshes throughout the world. They are sometimes cultivated in aquaria more as curiosities than for any intrinsic beauty. In the marsh species the bladders are less effective and numerous than in the pond species, and in the terrestrial kinds they are small, abortive, and useless. These last have leaves of ordinary forms and are often tuberous, whereas members of the first group have much dissected foliage like other pond plants and are rootless. Some of the tropical species are showy epiphytes and are cultivated in hot-houses like orchids, with some of which they compare in beauty. Consult: Bailey, Cyclopedia of American Horticulture' (1900-2).

Bla'densburg, Maryland, a small town in Prince George County, on the east branch of the Potomac, about six miles east from Washington, with a population in 1900 of 463. At the bridge over the Potomac west of Bladensburg, the battle with the English which preceded the capture of Washington, took place toward the latter part of the War of 1812, Gen. Ross and Admiral Cockburn with about 5,000 men, appeared in Chesapeake Bay to attack Washington. The American forces fell back to Bladensburg and awaited the British. The Americans numbered about 7,000, but were scattered and untrained. On 24 Aug. 1814, the British advanced to the attack. The American artillery held them in check for a time, but the troops pushed forward.

The Americans fled in wild disorder; the confusion spread and soon Gen. Winder, the American commander, gave orders for a general retreat. The American loss was 76 men; the British more than 500 killed and wounded. Bladensburg is famous in American history as the site of the duelling ground, where many famous duels growing out of quarrels in Washington were fought, as that in which Barron killed Decatur in 1820.

Blagoveshtchensk, blä - gö- vyěsh'chěnsk, Russia, a town of eastern Siberia, capital of the province of the Amoor, and of the general government of the Amoor, on the river Amoor, where it receives the Zeya, near the Chinese town of Aigoon. Founded as a military post in 1856 it is now an important place, with secondary schools, theological seminary, etc. Pop. (1903) 37,841.

Blaikie, William, American athlete and Writer on physical training: b. York, N. Y., 1843. He became a lawyer in New York. He has written 'How to Get Strong (2d ed. 1880); 'Sound Bodies for Our Boys and Girls' (1883).

Blaikie, William Garden, Scotch clergyman: b. Aberdeen, 1837; d. 11 June 1899. He was graduated at the University of Aberdeen; ordained a minister of the Established Church in 1842; joined the Free Church in 1843; and was appointed professor of apologetics and pastoral theology in New College, Edinburgh, 1868. He was a delegate to the Presbyterian General Assembly of the United States in 1870; took a leading part in the formation of the Alliance of the Reformed Churches; and was editor of the Free Church Magazine' in 1849-53; the North British Review' in 1860-3; the Sunday Magazine' in 1871-4; and the Catholic Presbyterian'

་

in 1879-83. His writings include Bible His- L

tory in Connection with General History' (1859); Bible Geography) (1860); Glimpses of the Inner Life of David Livingstone' (1880); Public Ministry and Pastoral Methods of Our Lord' (1883); Leaders in Modern Philanthropy (1884), etc.

Blaine, Ephraim, American soldier: d. Carlisle, Pa., 1808. He entered the army as a colonel, at the commencement of the Revolutionary War, and was subsequently made commissary-general. His services were gallant and patriotic. He was with Washington in many of the most trying scenes of the Revolution, and enjoyed the confidence of his chief to the fullest extent. During the "dark winter at Valley Forge, the preservation of the American army from starvation was in a great degree owing to the exertions and sacrifices of Col. Blaine.

man: b. West Brownsville, Pa.. south of PittsBlaine, James Gillespie, American statesburg, 31 Jan. 1830; d. 27 Jan. 1893. His father, a cultivated landowner, was a Presbyterian of Scotch-Irish blood; his mother was a Catholic. He was a precocious boy with a strong taste for history and literature, and the star of his debating club as orator and parliamentarian. At 13 he entered Washington College in his native county, graduated at 17, and after teaching and studying law, removed to Augusta, Me.. in 1854. He entered journalism and politics, joined the new Republican party the next year, was a delegate to its first (Fremont) convention in 1856, and in 1858 became chairman of the State

Republican committee-an extraordinary position at 28 after but four years' residence. He remained such for 20 years, the almost omnipotent dictator of the party's State action. In 1858, also, he was elected to the legislature, and re-elected three more terms, being speaker the last two; and in 1862 was sent to Congress, and re-elected six additional terms to the House. In the House he was the most effective and dexterous of debators, an adept at parliamentary law, of instant readiness and endless resource; and outside he became early the most captivating, magnetic, and brilliant of party leaders. With a prodigious and instant memory both for facts and faces, saturated with political history and the records of all prominent public men, with great charm of utterance and exuberant geniality of manner, he excited in the mass of his party the most enthusiastic devotion; but unfortunately in the "independent" wing an equally invincible distrust, which ultimately defeated his most cherished ambition. As congressman, his most noted positions were opposing Thaddeus Stevens' reconstruction plans for putting the South under military government, and of cutting down the representation of the States when readmitted to a basis of legal voters; opposing the payment of the public debt in greenbacks; and supporting the agitation which led to Great Britain's admitting her citizens' right to change their allegiance (1870), From 1869 to 1874 he was speaker, and gained the highest reputation for parliamentary ability, firmness, impartiality, and dispatch of business. The tremendous reaction of 1874 against Grant's second term swept the Democrats into control of the House by an immense majority, and Mr. Blaine became the leader of the Republican minority. An envenomed struggle at once began. As a matter of party tactics, and to pave the way for the election of 1876, Mr. Blaine sought to inflame Republican feeling by dwelling on the harshest memories of the war; the Democrats retorted by a series of attacks on his personal integrity in the speakership, as evidence of which they cited letters to a Boston broker which had been kept by a clerk named Mulligan. (See MULLIGAN LETTERS.) He exhibited and read the letters on the floor of the House to prove that they contained nothing discreditable; but the charges, in the hands of his enemies, remained one of the influences which twice lost him the nomination and at last the election to the presidency. In 1876 he received 285 votes, much the largest single vote, on the first ballot at the Republican convention, and 351 on the seventh; his imminent success then produced a coalition on Gen. Hayes. Senator Morrill of Maine becoming secretary of the treasury, Mr. Blaine was chosen senator for the unexpired term, and the following winter for the full term. He opposed the electoral commission on the ground that Congress was conferring powers beyond its own; opposed Hayes' withdrawal of the troops that upheld the carpet-bag governments; opposed the Bland Silver Bill and the adoption of the gold standard alike, believing bimetallism feasible and preferable; advocated ship subsidies, and rigid prohibition of Chinese immigration. In 1880 the attempt at a third term for Grant was defeated by the Blaine forces, who gave him 284 on first ballot; but after six days and 35 ballots, seeing that Blaine could not be nominated, united with the Sherman party to nominate Garfield,

by 399 to Grant's 306. Garfield made him secretary of state, and in his short tenure he planned a Pan-American Congress, attempted mediation between victorious Chile and crushed Peru, and attempted to cancel the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (q.v.). But the speedy assassination of Garfield, and the accession of Arthur, the lieutenant of Blaine's mortal enemy, Roscoe Conkling, made his place untenable, and on 19 December he resigned. He at once began his two-volume Twenty Years in Congress, a work of great charm and value; issuing the first volume in 1884, in time to do good work conciliating support for the next election. But meantime a memorable political letter to a New York State friend, widely published, was taken as a cue to his adherents in that State to vote against the administration candidate; and caused such a heavy fall in the Republican vote for governor that S. J. Folger, secretary of the treasury, was overwhelmed, and Grover Cleveland, the mayor of Buffalo, in high repute for having crushed a ring of plunderers there, was elected by 192,000 plurality. This unprecedented victory in the largest State of the Union gave Mr. Cleveland the Democratic nomination for President in 1884; and when Mr. Blaine was at last nominated by the Republicans (541 out of 813 on fourth ballot), the Independents carried out the threat of many years by bolting the nomination and mostly voting for Cleveland, who carried New York by 1,047 and with it the electoral majority. After his defeat he issued the second volume of his work (1886), and the next year a volume entitled 'Political Discussions.' Again a candidate in 1888, he withdrew in favor of Harrison, and was made secretary of state once more; he resumed his Pan-American policy, made a futile attempt to induce Great Britain to join in preserving the seals from extermination (see BERING SEA QUESTION), and favored a reciprocity commercial policy which made many of his old opponents draw toward him. He resigned in June 1892, in hope of securing the next Republican nomination, but found it out of the question. He died early the following year, of Bright's disease. His life was written by his kinswoman, Gail Hamilton (1895).

Blainville, Henri Marie Ducrotay de, on-rẽ mä-rē dü-krō-tā de, French naturalist: b. Arques, near Dieppe, 1778; d. 1 May 1850. He studied medicine and the allied sciences at Paris, and obtained his degree of M.D. in 1808. He was for a time assistant to Cuvier, whose influence helped to place him in the chair of anatomy and zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris in 1812. Unfortunately misunderstandings soon arose between the master and his comparatively youthful rival, and ultimately terminated in an open rupture. In 1825 Blainville was admitted to the Academy of Sciences as the successor of Lacépède, and on the death of Lamarck in 1829, the chair which he held in the Museum of Natural History having been divided, the department of mollusca, zoophytes, and worms was committed to Blainville, whose important works on these groups made it impossible to confer it on any other. In 1832 he quitted this department to become the not unworthy successor of Cuvier in the chair of comparative anatomy in the same establishment. His works, contained both in the more important collections of the period, and in separate treatises, are too numerous to be enumerated,

Blair, Andrew Alexander, American chemist: b. Kentucky, 20 Sept. 1848. He graduated at the United States Naval Academy, 1866; was chief chemist to the United States Commission to test iron, steel, and other metals, 1875-8, and to the United States Geological Survey and 10th census, 1879-81. Since then he has been engaged in general practice. Besides reports to the government and contributions to scientific journals he has published The Chemical Analysis of Iron: Complete Account of all the BestKnown Methods for the Analysis of Iron, Steel, etc.) (Phila. 1888).

Blair, Austin, American lawyer: b. Caroline, N. Y., 8 Feb. 1818; d. Jackson, Mich., 6 Aug. 1894. He graduated at Union College in 1839; studied law in Oswego, N. Y., and removed to Jackson, Mich., where he was admitted to the bar in 1842. He was elected to the legislature in 1846; became conspicuous in the convention which established the Republican party in Michigan: and was elected governor of Michigan in 1860. He was a member of Congress (1866-70).

Blair, Francis Preston, American journalist and politician: b. Abingdon, Va., 12 April 1791; d. Silver Spring, Md., 18 Oct. 1876. In early life he was a Jacksonian Democrat. He edited the Washington Globe from 1830 to 1845. Through his anti-slavery sentiments he became one of the founders of the Republican party, but in later years returned to the Democratic faith.

Blair, Francis Preston, Jr., American soldier and statesman (son of the preceding): b. Lexington, Ky., 19 Feb. 1821; d. St. Louis, Mo., 5 July 1875. He was a representative in Congress from Missouri (1857-9 and 1861-3); became a major-general in the Union army in the Civil War, taking an active part in the Vicksburg campaign and Sherman's march to the sea; was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for Vice-President in 1868, and United States senator (1870-3).

Blair, Henry William, American legislator: b. Campton, N. H., 6 Dec. 1834. He received an academic education; was admitted to the bar in 1859; served through the Civil War, becoming lieutenant-colonel of the 15th New Hampshire Volunteers, and was twice wounded. After serving in both branches of the State legislature he was a member of Congress (1875-9 and 1893-5), and United States Senator (1879-89). He is the author of what was known as the "Blair Common School Bill," designed to distribute a certain amount of Federal money for educational purposes among the various States in proportion to the number of illiterates. He was a strong opponent of Chinese immigration, and, when he was appointed and confirmed United States minister to China, Vol. 3-2

Blair, Hugh, Scottish divine: b. Edinburgh, 7 April 1718; d. 27 Dec. 1800. He commenced his academic career at Edinburgh University in 1730. In 1741 he was licensed as a preacher, and the following year was ordained to the parish of Collessie, Fife, but a few months after he was elected to the second charge of the Canongate, Edinburgh. In 1754 he received one of the city charges, that of Lady Yester's church, and in 1758 one of the charges of the High Church. In 1759 he commenced a course of lectures to students upon the principles of literary composition; and in 1762 he was made professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres in the University of Edinburgh, being the first that ever occupied this chair. He continued the course till 1783, when he published his lectures, which received very high praise. In 1763 he published a dissertation on the Poems of Ossian, in the authenticity of which he firmly believed.

It was not till 1777 that he could be prevailed upon to offer to the world any of those sermons with which he had so long delighted a private congregation. One of the sermons having been sent by Strahan, the king's printer, to Dr. Johnson for his opinion, Strahan received from him the following characteristic note: "I have read over Dr. Blair's first sermon with more than approbation; to say it is good is to say too little." Strahan thereupon agreed to purchase the volume, with Mr. Cadell, for $500. The sale was so rapid and extensive, and the approbation of the public the stipulated price. The volume speedily fell so high, that the proprietors voluntarily doubled under the attention of George III., and by royal mandate a pension of $1,000 a year was bestowed on Dr. Blair. During the subsequent part of his life Dr. Blair published three other volumes of successive publication only tended to deepen the sermons; and it might safely be said that each impression produced by the first.

Blair, James, American clergyman and educator: b. Scotland, 1656; d. Williamsburg, Va., 1 Aug. 1743. In 1685 he was sent as a missionary to Virginia by Dr. Compton, Bishop of London. There he secured the confidence of the planters, and proved himself far in advance of his contemporaries on the question of slavery. In 1689 Sir Francis Nicholson appointed him "commissary," the highest ecclesiastical office in the colony. This office gave him a seat in the Council of the colonial government; he presided over the trials of clergymen, and pronounced sentence upon conviction of crimes or misdemeanors. His great desire was to see a college established in the colony. The Assembly and governor warmly sympathized with his project; he went to England and laid his plan before William and Mary, and on 14 Feb. 1692, a charter for the college was granted, the bishop of London being appointed chancellor and Blair president, and the institution named "William and Mary." Its opening was repeatedly delayed, and Blair did not enter on his duties as president until 1729. but his enthusiasm never wavered, and his efforts were finally crowned with success. He left his library to the college. He wrote Our Saviour's Divine Sermon on the Mount' (London 1722, 4 vols.; 3d ed. 1740), a