Egypt, described in the physical history of Egypt, tends to show how skilful the husbandmen of Egypt were in the art of agriculture. In confirmation of this fact, we may mention, moreover, that they had various breeds of large cattle, sheep, goats, pigs; and that they reared a quantity of poultry, chiefly by artificial means, the eggs being hatched in ovens.

Diodorus states, that the husbandmen were hired to till the estates of the kings, priests, and soldiers. This is confirmed by the Scripture account of the cession of all the landed property to the government on the occasion of the famine: hence we may conclude, that the husbandman had no rights in the soil, the richer peasants farming the land from the proprietor, while the poor were hired as labourers for the cultivation of the ground. The wages paid them were trifling, whence some infer that the farmer received the land on moderate terms. The cattle, in general, appears also to have belonged to the land-owner; but those employed in the plough, and for other agricultural purposes, were usually the property of the farmer. In extensive domains, the peasants appear sometimes to have acted as superintendents of the herdsmen, and to have been obliged to give an account to the steward of the number and condition of the cattle on the estate.

From the testimony of Diodorus, it is evident that the farmers were not only permitted to choose the grain they intended to cultivate, but were justly deemed the only persons of sufficient experience to form a judicious opinion upon the subject; and so skilful were they, says this historian, about these matters, that they far excelled the agriculturists of every other nation. They carefully considered the nature of the soil, the proper succession of crops, and the mode of tilling and irrigating the fields; and by constant observation, and the lessons received from their parents, were acquainted with the exact season for sowing and reaping, and with all the peculiarities of each species of grain. Gardeners were employed by the wealthy in cultivating trees and flowers in the grounds attached to their houses; and the vineyard, orchard, and tanks, which served as ornaments, as well as for the purposes of irrigation, were under their superintendence.

The peasants appear to have been divided into hundreds, each with a peculiar banner, which they followed when they presented themselves before the magistrate for the census, which is supposed to have originated in that country, and which was taken at stated periods. On these occasion, they were obliged to give an account of their conduct; and if they

were found delinquent, they were punished with the stick, their common mode of punishment, as it is at the present day in Persia and China.

In this caste, some authors place the huntsmen as another subdivision, and the boatmen as another; who, like others that composed the subdivisions of each caste, were of different grades. Thus, some belonged to the private sailing or pleasure boats of the grandees, others to those of burden; and the rank of each depended on the station he held. The office of steersman seems to have been the most important, and to have ranked above all the other grades; but, probably, in war, the pilots of ships bore the highest station.

Artificers, etc.

them.

A fourth caste among the Egyptians was the artificers and tradesmen, and public weighers, etc., who resided in the towns. That the Egyptians excelled in science and art is evident from their monuments, paintings, and sculptures, whereon they are depicted. It is also proved by Scripture, which speaks of the "wisdom of Egypt" with reference to art; and by the fact that Egypt was deemed by other nations the fountain of arts and sciences, and that their philosophers were wont to resort thither to collect some of the " droppings of Egyptian wisdom." There is a passage in the work of Agatharchides on the Red Sea, [see page 11,] which describes their manner of working gold mines, and smelting the metal. The Egyptians were also acquainted with the art of gilding, and the art of fabricating glass was early known among A kind of ancient porcelain sometimes covered with enamel and varnish, is found in considerable quantities in that country. Their pottery, as exhibited in their ancient sculptures, was often of the most elegant form, and much of their furniture is not surpassed by the most refined manufactures of the present day. Specimens of their chairs and couches, which are given in Rosellini's great work are very beautiful in their forms. Linen cloths, plain or embroidered, white or dyed, was an article of Egyptian manufacture held in high repute among foreign nations. See Ezek. xxvii. 7. The art of making leather was known to them: their musical instruments, also, especially the harp, were early brought to great perfection.

According to Diodorus, all trades vied with each other in improving their own particular branch, no pains being spared

to bring it to perfection. To promote this object more effectually, it was enacted that no artisan should follow any other trade or employment but that which had been defined by law, and followed by his ancestors. No tradesman was permitted to meddle with political affairs, or to hold any civil office in the state, lest his thoughts should be distracted by the inconsistency of his pursuits, or by the jealousy and displeasure of the master in whose service he was employed. They foresaw that without such a law constant interruptions would take place, in consequence of the necessity or the desire of becoming conspicuous in a public station; that their proper occupations would be neglected, and that many would be led by vanity and self-sufficiency to interfere in matters which were out of their sphere. They considered, moreover, that to follow more than one occupation would be detrimental to their own interests, and to those of the community at large; and that, when men, from a motive of avarice, engage in numerous branches of art, the general result is, that they are unable to excel in any. If any artisan meddled with political affairs, or engaged in any other employment than the one to which he had been brought up, a severe punishment was immediately inflicted upon him.

Shepherds, etc.

The last class or caste among the Egyptians included pastors, or herdsmen, poulterers, fishermen, labourers, servants, and common people. The former of these appear to have been held in peculiar contempt among them: hence it is not surprising that Pharaoh should have treated the Jews with that contempt which it was customary for every Egyptian to feel towards shepherds, or that Joseph should have warned his brethren, on their arrival in Egypt, that every shepherd was an abomination in their sight. Herodotus tells us, that the swineherds, in particular, were not permitted to enter the Egyptian temples, nor would any man give them his daughter in marriage. In the Mendesian nome, however, according to this author, goatherds were much honoured. How much all orders of shepherds were in general despised, is proved by their sculptures, both of Upper and Lower Egypt, whereon they are universally represented as dirty and unshaven; and at Beni-Hassan and the tombs near the pyramids of Geezeh they are carricatured as a deformed and unsightly race.

LAWS.

We learn from Herodotus that the kings of Egypt pos sessed the right of enacting laws, and of managing all the affairs of religion and state. We are acquainted, however, with very few of the laws of the ancient Egyptians; but the superiority of their legislature has been acknowledged in all ages as the cause of the duration of their empire-an empire which lasted with a uniform succession of hereditary sovereigns, and with the same form of government, for a much longer period than, perhaps, any other ancient state.

Besides the right of enacting laws, the kings administered justice to their people on those subjects which came under their immediate cognizance, in which they were assisted by the most able and distinguished members of the priestly order. These, were, indeed, consulted upon all questions of importance relating to the internal administration of the country. Thus, previous to the admission of Joseph to the confidence of Pharaoh, they were asked, "Can we find such a one as this is?" Gen. xli. 38; and the prophet Isaiah speaks of "the wise counsellors of Pharaoh," Isa. xix. 11.

The edicts of the Egyptian monarchs appear to have been issued in the form of a firman, or written order, as in all oriental countries. These edicts appear sometimes to have been issued by delegates. Thus, after Pharaoh had set Joseph "over all the land of Egypt," it is said, "And Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand, and put it upon Joseph's hand," Gen. xli. 42; which, Vossius says, was given both in token of the dignity to which he preferred Joseph, and that he might seal letters and patents in the king's name.

Causes of ordinary occurrence were decided by those who held the office of judges, thirty of whom were selected out of the principal cities to form a body for the distribution of justice throughout the kingdom. These were elected by the king, and they were chosen for their known honesty; and over them was placed one, distinguished for his knowledge and love of the laws, and had in universal esteem, with the title of arch-judge. These judges had revenues assigned them, to the intent, that being freed from domestic cares, they might devote their time to the execution of the laws. maintained by the king's generosity, they administered to the people, gratuitously, that justice to which they have a natural right, and which ought to be open alike to the rich and the poor.

Thus

To guard against surprise, affairs were transacted by writing in the assemblies of these judges. That eloquence was justly dreaded which dazzles the mind, and moves the passions. Truth could not be expressed with too much plainness, as that alone was to have the sway in judgments, and because, in that alone, the rich and the poor, the powerful and weak, the learned and the ignorant, were to find relief and security.

The two leading principles of the duty of these judges were, first, that those who had been wronged should be benefitted by the interposition of the laws: and, secondly, that no favour or respect of persons should be permitted. The very spirit of their laws was, indeed, to give protection and assistance to the oppressed; every thing that tended to promote an unbiassed judgment was peculiarly commended by the Egyptian sages.

The president of these judges wore a collar of gold, set with precious stones, on which hung a figure represented as blind, this being called the emblem of Truth. This was a representation of the goddess who was worshipped under the double character of Truth and Justice, and whose name, Thmer is supposed by some to resemble the Hebrew Thummim, a word, according to the Septuagint translation, implying truth, Exod. xxviii. 30, and bearing a further analogy in its plural termination. When the president put this collar on, it was understood as a signal to enter upon business. He touched the party with it who was to gain the cause, which was the form of passing sentence.

But it must not be supposed that the president and thirty judges, here described, were the only house of judicature in Egypt. Each capital of a nome, it is probable, had its own court for the trial of minor and local offences; and it is possible that this assembly resided wherever the royal court was held, and performed many of the same duties as the senates of other ancient states. Diodorus, indeed, mentions the thirty judges and their president, represented at Thebes in the sculptures of the tomb of Osymandas.

The laws of the Egyptians had the credit of having been dictated by the gods themselves; and Thoth, (Hermes, or Mercury,) was said to have framed them for the benefit of mankind. Those which are handed down to us by Diodorus, and other ancient writers, are briefly these:

Wilful Murder.-The wilful murder of a freeman or slave was punished with death: from the conviction that men