man as compared with that of the orang-outang. The first thing that strikes the observer is the manifest want of adaptability in the skeleton of the baboon to maintain the erect position; whilst the placing of man on his hands and feet is felt to be opposed to his structure. If we examine the two skeletons from this point of view, we shall observe a number of remarkable structural differences. In the first plaće, it will be seen that the feet of man are broader than those of the monkey, and of any other animal in proportion to its size, in order to give a surface large enough for the body to be conveniently placed on them, and moved with rapidity. On examining the bones of the tarsus (instep), (Figs. 1 and 2, n), it will be seen that they are bound firmly together, and that they are on a level with the bones of the toes. This is not the case with the orang, in which the bones of the tarsus are loose, and considerably elevated above those of the toes. In dogs, and many other quadrupeds, the bones of the instep and wrist are considerably elevated from the ground, and the body rests entirely on the toes. In the horse, and other animals with a solid hoof, not only are the bones which represent the wrist and instep in man elevated, but only the third series of bones constituting the toes (Fig 1, 0) rest on the ground. The whole structure of the foot of man is adapted to sustaining the weight of the body, and is not used for the purposes of prehension, as is the case in all the quadrumana. In this we have an instance of higher development, as the function of handling, which is possessed by both the fore and hind extremities of the monkeys, is entirely confined to the upper in man. Whilst the function of supporting the body, which must necessarily interfere with the delicate sensation required for expert manipulation, is performed by all the extremities of the monkeys, it is confined to the lower extremities in man. It is this

Fig. 1.

fact that at once constitutes man "bi-manus " and "biped"-a combination not found in any other animal.

If we now cast our eyes above the foot, we shall see how differently the parts of the leg are placed in relation to it in man and the monkey. In the former the tibia and fibula (Fig. 1, m) are placed at right angles with the foot, and the heel-bone projects so as to receive the tendon of the powerful muscle which constitutes the calf of

the leg, and performs the most service in the locomotion of the body. Above the bones of the leg are those of the thigh (Figs. 1 and 2, 7). On these

bones the broad pelvis of the man (Fig. 1, i) rests, and, by the peculiar shape of the neck of the thigh-bone, a broad surface of support is secured. In man the bones of the thigh are much longer than in the orang, and wider apart in proportion to their length at the summits. The pelvis (Fig. 1, 2) in man differs remarkably from that of the lower animals; it is much broader and firmer at the back, in that portion on which the bones of the spine (Figs. 1 and 2, g) rest. The bones of the pelvis are also much curved below, for the support of the internal viscera, and also to render the sitting posture of man tolerable, which would be impossible were this part of his skeleton constructed on the same principle as that of the orang-outang.

From the pelvis we pass to the spine, that part of the skeleton included between the head and the pelvis, and which is composed of a number of small bones called vertebra (from vertere, to turn). These are divided into three kinds-the lumbar (Figs. 1 and 2,g); the dorsal; and the cervical (b b). The vertebræ in man are so constructed as to fit the spine for the erect attitude. They are arranged in the form of a pyramid, with the base below, and admit of a considerable amount of motion, but always so arranged that the centre of gravity is brought within the base. To the vertebræ the ribs (ff) are attached, and brought together in front by a broad bone called the

Fig. 2.

sternum (e e). The thorax, or chest, is thus formed, and in man it differs from the monkey by being shallower and more compressed in front, and

wider from side to side: by this means the tendency of the trunk to press forwards, as it were, which is seen in the lower animals, is prevented.

We now turn to the upper extremities. They are attached by means of the blade-bone and collar-bone (c c) to the thorax. They differ not less in the two beings we are comparing than the lower extremities. In the orang the bones of the arm are much longer than those of the leg; in man they are of the same length. In the hand (k k), also, we observe great differences. The first thing that strikes us is the size of the thumb. In monkeys we have what is called an "opposable thumb" a finger opposed to the others, by which grasping and handling are effected; but in man this thumb is capable of touching the points of all the fingers, whilst in the orang-outang the thumb is so small, and the fingers so long, that their tips can hardly be strained to meet, much less opposed to each other for use. It is the meeting of the thumb and tips of the fingers which enables man to use his hand at once with so much precision and power, that, of all organs that distinguish him, this has been pointed out as the most important. Even were the structure of the hand more elevated in apes, it would be of less use to them than it is to man; for it would only be when they were in the erect attitude that they could use it. But man's hand is always free, for his attitude is erect.

In all our reflections, however, on the superiority of the organs of man over those of the beasts of the field, we must not forget that they are directed to their great ends by the intelligence of the human race, and that without this power man would speedily sink below the level of the brute, and probably would shortly cease to exist.

CHAPTER III.

THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF MAN AS COMPARED WITH THE LOWER

ANIMALS.

IN our last chapter we were comparing the structure of the skeleton of man with that of the highest of those creatures which most nearly approach him in habits and organization. We purposely selected the skeleton, in preference to any other system of organs, for comparison, as we find this hard framework of the higher animals assuming its peculiarities of structure in obedience to the requirements of the softer parts of the system, which it either supports or protects. In contrasting the conformation of man with the lower animals, we cannot fail to be struck with the numerous points of difference which exist between them. The differences are so great that it seems almost an improper expression to say that the orang-outang is a link between man and the quadrumana, as man has an organization much more in advance of this creature than it has above any of its own tribe. Man, in fact, is not merely the last link in the chain of the animal kingdom, but is a new creation, with a body as much more highly developed above any of the lower creatures as his mind is superior to the instinct and intelligence of animals. Yet the world has been called upon to adopt the idea that man has not been specially created and placed upon the surface of the earth, but that he is the descendant of some of the higher forms of monkeys. This theory (which the writer believes to be entirely erroneous) is called the theory of organic

development, and it supposes that the various forms of animal and vegetable life, called species, have not been created, but developed the one from the other. Thus it supposes that cells are formed under the influence of galvanism, which at last become endowed with life; that these, on the one hand, proceed to become plants, and on the other to become animals. Seaweeds grow into lichens, lichens into mosses, mosses into ferns, and ferns into palms, oaks, and elms. The animalcules become polypes, the polypes star-fishes, and these again pass on to fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, till at last, by the continued process of improvement, the race of man came into existence.* Now, had we nothing but the forms of the lower animals to guide us to a rational history of creation, we might, influenced by the close resemblance in structure in many kinds of animals, come to the conclusion that it was not impossible for one to produce the other; but when we come to compare man with all other animals, we should find that he left them at so great a distance, that here, at least, our explanation would not hold. But when we examine the facts of history, and find that in all time we have no single observation to prove that a lower animal can produce a higher one, and each creature produces its own species and no other, we are driven to the conclusion that the production of every species of animal and plant, as well as man, was an especial act of creative power on the part of Deity, and that he has left no portion of his creation to the mere consequences of material laws.

Let us, however, now return to our comparison between the structure of man and the orang-outang, as we shall find that this examination will materially assist us in our subsequent inquiries with regard to the differences that exist amongst the races of men. In regarding the skeleton of the lower animals, as compared with man, nothing is more remarkable than the position of the head. In man the head is placed upon the top of the spinal column, in such a manner that its whole weight rests directly upon the erect spine. It is on this account that a small amount of muscular power is capable of giving to the human head the various movements of which it is susceptible. On examining the human body, we find a number of small muscles attached to the cervical vertebræ (Fig. 1, p. 357, b b), and to the base of the skull, by which the head and face are moved up and down, and from side to side, adapting it to the various positions it assumes under different mental states, and in the exercise of its functions. When we examine the lower animals, we find that the skull is placed obliquely upon the cervical vertebræ, so that with the horizontal position of the spine it gravitates toward the earth. This obliquity is less in monkeys than in the horse, ox, and elephant; and in these latter animals a powerful ligament, called by anatomists the ligamentum nucha, is extended from the base of the skull to the cervical vertebræ, for the purpose of keeping the head in its proper position in relation to the spine. In animals that are eaten this powerful ligamentous band is known as " pax-wax," or "pack-wax."

The form of the skull, and the relation of the face to the upper portion of the skull, are very different in the lower animals and man. In the former we find the upper and lower jaws projecting greatly, so as to elongate the face; whilst the skull is thrown backwards, and, as it were, behind the face. This projection of the muzzle is very characteristic of the lower animals;

* See "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation."

and as we pass from the less developed to those which approach man in structure, we find the jaws projecting less, and the skull brought more forward, till at last they assume a somewhat human appearance. This is the case with the monkeys, and especially the orang-outang; but the skull of this animal presents a wide contrast with that of man (Figs. 1 and 2) in these particulars. In order to appreciate the differences between the face and the skull of various animals and man, different plans have been proposed, but that of Camper is most generally followed. This consists in drawing a line from the external opening of the ear to the lower edge of the opening of the nostril. If another line be now drawn from the side of the chin, falling upon the most prominent part of the forehead, it will form an angle with the first line, more or less acute according to the greater or less prominence of the skull and projection of the jaws. If we draw these lines in the crocodile, we shall find that they correspond, and there is no appreciable angle. Cuvier gives the following as the result of the measurement of this angle in various animals:-In the Horse it is 23 deg.; Ram, 30 deg.; Dog, 35 deg.; Orang-outang, 56 deg.; European adult 85 deg.

It should, however, be remarked that these measurements differ within certain limits amongst all creatures. The difference is very considerable in the various races of men. Thus, in

the Negro races (Fig. 3), we find this angle more acute than it is amongst the races who inhabit China, or the wild Indians of America; whilst in the European it is more nearly a right e angle than in any other.do

Another remarkable feature connected with the organization of the head is the character of the teeth. Man is distinguished from all other animals in the equal length of his teeth. In all the lower animals we find the teeth overlapping each other, and thus producing an irregular line, where they are closed one over the other, and meet b Occipital bone. together. The vertical position of the e Temporal bone. teeth of man produces also the promid Zygoma. nent chin, which is a very characteristic feature in his face. Another peculiarity in the face of man is the prominence of the bones of the nose (Fig. 3, h), as compared with the diminished protrusion of the upper jaw, and the projection of the forehead; so that the nose becomes an organ influencing the whole aspect of the countenance. The whole of these distinguishing characters of the skull and face of man have relation to his erect position, as we immediately recognize in the diminished length of the muzzle, the broad flat face, and expanded forehead, the structure of a creature that could not use its mouth as an organ of prehension, for the purpose of taking its food from the ground, or even for laying hold of the fruit of trees, as is the case with monkeys.

It is not, however, alone in the hard parts, or bones, that we find man differing from the rest of the animal kingdom. To each of the various bones of the skeleton in the living body there are attached muscles, which have