ARISTOLOCHIA. (coriis bubulis1), which were sometimes moistened (humectis taurinis exuviis). 2. They threw down great stones, so as to break off the iron head of the ram. 3. To accomplish the same purpose, they erected beams turning upon upright posts (tollenones); from the extremities of these beams they suspended masses of lead, trunks of trees, stones, or parts of columns. They then caused these ponderous bodies to fall repeatedly upon the head of the ram, while the opposite party attempted to defeat this effort by means similar to those mentioned under the article ANTENNA, viz., by the use of sickles fixed to the ends of long poles (asseribus falcatis), and employed to cut the ropes by which the stones and other weights were suspended. 4. They caught the head of the ram in a noose (laqueo, Bpóxous), and were thus enabled to draw it on one side and avert its blows, or even to overturn it and prevent its action altogether. 5. They seized the head with a large forceps armed with teeth, and called the wolf (lupus), and they thus baffled the efforts of the besiegers in the same way as by using the noose. 6. They filled sacks with chaff, or stuffed them with other soft materials, and suspended them by ropes wherever the ram was expected to strike, so as to divert its blows and break their force, the besiegers meanwhile employing the sickles, as already mentioned, to cut the ropes. This provision of sickles, in addition to the ram, belonged to the more complicated engine, called testudo arietaria. The larger machines of this class were so constructed as to be taken to pieces in order to be conveyed from place to place, and were put together again when required for use.10 Virgil is certainly chargeable with an anachronism when he speaks of the aries as employed at the sieges of Ilium and of Laurentum." Thucydides mentions the use of it by the Peloponnesians at the siege of Platea.12 But it first became an important military engine in the hands of the Macedonians and Carthaginians. (Vid. FALX, HELEPOLIS, TESTUDO.) *ARIES (xplós), the ordinary ram. (Vid. Ovis.) * ARION (ἀρείων οἱ ἀρίων), a shellfish noticed by Elian. It is now applied to a genus of the class Mollusca, but was formerly placed under the Limaces.13 ARIS ARUM (picapov), a species of plant. Dodonæus makes out its alliance with the Arum, and, accordingly, modern botanists give it the name of Arum arisarum. Miller calls it Friar's Cowl in English.1 ARMA. ARMA, ARMATURA (EvTea, Tevxea, Hom. or 2a), arms, armour. There can be no doubt that, in the earliest times, the Greeks, as well as other nations, used stones and clubs for their weapons, and that they wore the skins of the wild beasts which they had slain, at once as proofs of their strength and prowess, and as a protection to their bodies. Hence Hercules was commonly represented clad in the spoils of the Nemean lion, as well as carrying a club. The use of the goatskin for a similar purpose has been noticed under the article ÆGIS. Theocritus, in the following lines, describes the savage wrestler Amycus as wearing the skin of a lion, which was fastened over his breast by two of the paws, and depended from thence over his back: Αὐτὰρ ὑπὲρ νώτοιο καὶ αὐχένος ᾐωρεῖτο *Ακρων δέρμα λέοντος ἀφημμένον ἐκ ποδεώνων. This mode of wearing the lion's skin is displayed in two small bronzes of very high antiquity, which have been published by Micali, and which are copied in the annexed woodcut. passed over the right shoulder; fourthly, the large | armed, and again retreating for safety into the rear, round shield (oáкоç, àσñís, clipeus, scutum), supported in the same manner; fifthly, his helmet (Kópus, kuvén, cassis galea); sixthly and lastly, he took his spear (yxos, dópv, hasta), or, in many cases, two spears (doûpe dúw). Virgil represents the outfit of a warrior as consisting of the same six portions, when he describes the armour made by Vulcan for Eneas, and brought to him by his mother. The form and use of these portions are described in separate articles under their Latin names. The annexed woodcut exhibits them all in the form of a Greek warrior attired for battle, as shown in Hope's Costume of the Ancients (i., 70). Those who were defended in the manner which has now been represented, are called by Homer doTOTаí, from their great shield (άoníç); also ȧyxepáxo, because they fought hand to hand with their adversaries; but much more commonly póμaxo, because they occupied the front of the army: and it is to be observed that these terms, especially the last, were honourable titles, the expense of a complete suit of armour (πavoñλín2) being of itself sufficient to prove the wealth and rank of the wearer, while his place on the field was no less indicative of strength and bravery. they rendered important service to their employers. We are justified in using the term "employers," because the light-armed were commonly attached in a subordinate capacity to individuals of the heavyarmed soldiery. In this manner the Helots were compelled to serve in the Spartan army. At the battle of Platea, each Spartan had an appointment of no less than seven Helots to carry his arms, to protect him in danger, to assist him in conquering his opponent, and also to perform every menial service. On the same occasion, as we are informed by Herodotus, the other divisions of the Greek army had only one light-armed to one heavy-armed soldier. In after times, also, the Athenian hoplite had usually one attendant, and received as wages for both himself and his servant two drachmæ per day.3 Besides the heavy and light armed soldiers, the ὁπλῖται and ψιλοί, who, in general, bore towards one another the intimate relation now explained, another description of men, the reλraoraí, also formed a part of the Greek army, though we do not hear of them in early times. Instead of the large round shield, they carried a smaller one called the Téλτη, and in other respects their armour, though heavier and more effective than that of the was much lighter than that of the hoplites. The weapon on which they principally depended was the spear. The cities of Euboea agreed to go to battle only as hoplites, discarding the use of light armour, depending on the sword and lance, and handling the latter as a pike. The Euboeans were probably induced to form this agreement in consequence of the richness of their island in the ores of copper and iron. On the other hand, those nations which had neither mines, nor any considerable wealth of other kinds, could scarcely send any but light-armed soldiers, who commonly served as mercenaries. The Romans legions consisted, as the Greek infantry for the most part did, of heavy and light armed troops (gravis et levis armatura). But they were not formed upon the same system of attaching individuals to one another, in the relation of the master or employer and his servant. At all events, this system did not prevail among the Romans to any extent; and when Virgil, in the Eneid, mentions the armour-bearer or squire (armiger), we must understand him to allude to the Grecian or Oriental practice, or to attribute such attendance and state to kings and generals only. When a legion was drawn up in order of battle, the heavy-armed were posted in front in three divisions, viz., the principes, the hastati, and the triarii, and behind them were placed the light-armed in two divisions, called the rorarii, and the accensi or velites, In later times, the heavy-armed soldiers were the weight and strength of the arms decreasing called onλirai, because the term öλa more espe- gradually in these five divisions, until the rear concially denoted the defensive armour, the shield and sisted only of archers, slingers, and other troops, thorax. By wearing these they were distinguished who might leave their place whenever occasion refrom the light-armed, whom Herodotus, for the quired, and make swift excursions for the purpose reason just mentioned, calls avonλot, and who are of attacking and annoying the enemy. Especially also denominated ψιλοί and γυμνοί, γυμνῆται or in commencing an engagement, the light-armed youvres. Instead of being defended by the shield troops advanced to the front, strove to put the enemy and thorax, their bodies had a much slighter cover- to flight, and, if successful, pursued them. If, on ing, sometimes consisting of skins, as in the above- the other hand, they were worsted, they retreated mentioned instance of the Arcadians, and some-again in a body behind the heavy troops, on whom, times of leather or cloth; and, instead of the sword as the main stay of the army, depended the decision and lance, they commonly fought with darts, stones, of the conflict. If the heavy-armed were victoribows and arrows, or slings. Though greatly inferior in rank and prowess to the heavy-armed soldiery, it is probable that they often surpassed them in numbers; and by their agility, by their rapid movements from place to place, and by embracing every opportunity of assailing the enemy, coming towards the front under the protection of the heavy ous, the light-armed again rushed forward to aid in breaking the ranks of the enemy, and the pursuit was left to them and to the cavalry, while the principes, hastati, and triarii maintained their original position." 1. (Herod., ix., 10, 28-30.-Manso, Sparta, i., 1, p. 136, 137.) -2. (1. c.)-3. (Thucyd., iii., 17.)-4. (Strabo, X., 1, 12, 13.)1. (Æn., viii., 615-625.)-2. (Herod., i., 60.)-3. (ix., 62, 63.) 1.5. (Veget., De Re Milit., ii, 15-17.) The annexed figure is taken from the arch of masters at arms were called armidoctores and campi Septimius Severus at Rome. On comparing it with doctores (ónλodidaktaí, óñλodidáσkaλoi). that of the Greek hoplite in the last woodcut, we The armory or arsenal, in which arms of all perceive that, while the national character is dis-kinds were kept, was called armamentarium (óñλоplayed by a wide difference in the attitude and ex- Onkη, óñλopνháкLov1). The marine arsenal at the pression, the several parts of the armour correspond, Piræus, built by the architect Philo, was the glory excepting only that the Roman soldier wears a dag- of the Athenians." ger (axaipa, pugio) on his right side instead of a word on his left, and, instead of greaves upon his legs, has femoralia and caliga. All the essential parts of the Roman heavy armour (lorica, ensis, clipeus, galea, hasta) are mentioned together in an epigram of Martial, and all except the spear in a wellknown passage of St. Paul, whose enumeration exactly coincides with the figures on the arch of Severus, and who makes mention, not of greaves, but of shoes or sandals for the feet. The soft or flexible parts of the heavy armour were made of cloth or leather. The metal principally used in their formation was that compound of copper and tin which we call bronze, or, more properly, bell-metal. (Vid. Es.) Hence the names for this metal (xaixó, as) are often used to mean armour, and the light reflected from the arms of a warrior is called auyn xaλkein by Homer, and lux aëna by Virgil. Instead of copper, iron afterward came to be very extensively used in the manufacture of arms, although articles made of it are much more rarely discovered, because iron is, by exposure to air and moisture, exceedingly liable to corrosion and decay. Gold and silver, and tin unmixed with copper, were also used, more especially to enrich and adorn the armour. When the Cyclopes, under the direction of Vulcan, make the suit for Eneas, as already mentioned, they employ these various metals: In rude states of society, when the spirit of violence rendered life and property insecure, both Grecians and the nations around, whom they called barbarians, constantly carried arms for their defence. In the time of Thucydides the Athenians had discontinued this practice, because the necessity for being always armed existed no longer; but they all bore spears and shields in the public processions. ARMA'RIUM, originally a place for keeping arms, afterward a cupboard, in which were kept, not only arms, but also clothes, books, money, ornaments, images, pictures, and other articles of value. The armarium was generally placed in the atrium of the house. The divisions of a library were called armaria. We find armarium distegum mentioned as a kind of sepulchre in an inscription in Gruter." ARMAMENTA'RIUM. (Vid. ARMA, p. 95.) *ARMENIACA MALA (μῆλα Αρμενίακα), a fruit, which Dioscorides makes the same with the præcocia of the Romans. There seems little reason to doubt that it is identical with our Apricot. *ARMEN ́IUM ('Apuéviov), a blue pigment called after the country whence it came. The kind which by Dioscorides is esteemed the best, appears to have been an earth; for he requires it to be smooth, friable, and free from stone. Adams makes it to have been an impure carbonate of copper, like the Lapis Lazuli. Hill, however, maintains that it was a yellow earth or ochre of copper. The Armenium must not be confounded with the Lapis Armenius (Aidos 'Apμeviaκós), or Armenian stone, first noticed by Paulus Ægineta, and which is called 2i0os 2a5oúpios by Myrepsus. Jameson says the Armenian stone of the ancients was a limestone impregnated with earthy azure copper, and in which copper and iron pyrites were sometimes disseminated. ARMILLA (ψάλιον, ψέλιον, οι ψέλλιον, χλιδών, uoidea), a bracelet or armlet. Among all the nations of antiquity, the Medes and Persians appear to have displayed the greatest taste for ornaments of this class. They wore not only armillæ on their wrists, and on the arm a little below the shoulder, but also earrings, collars or necklaces, and splendid turbans. These portions of their dress often consisted of strings of valuable pearls, or were enriched with jewels. They were intended to indicate the rank, power, and wealth of the wearer, and this use of them has continued through successive generations down to the present day.10 In Europe, golden armillæ were worn by the Gauls both on their arms and on their wrists." The Sabines also wore ponderous golden armilla on the left arm, about the time of the foundation of Rome;11 1. (Vid. Liv., xxxi., 23.-Juv., xiii., 83.)-2. (Strab., ix., 1, 15. "Fluit as rivis, aurique metallum: -Plin., H. N., vii., 38.-Val. Max., viii., 12.-Cic., De Orat., i., Vulnificusque chalybs vasta fornace liquescit." 14.)-3. (Thucyd., i., 6.)-4. (vi., 58.)-5. (Dig. 33, tit. 10, s. 3. -Cic., pro Cluent., c. 64.-Petron., Sat., 29.- Plin., H. N., It cannot be supposed that the Roman soldiers xxix., 17, 32; xxxv., 2, 2.)-6. (Vitruv., vii., Præf.-Vopisc., could have acquired their high renown as conquer- Tac., 8.)-7. (p. 383, No. 4.)-8. (Dioscor., 1, 165.-Hardouin in ors without being regularly instructed in the use of Plin., H. N., xv., 21.-Casiri, Biblioth. Hispan. Arab., vol. i., p. 330.-Gesner, Lex. Rusticum.)-9. (Dioscor., v., 105-Vitruv., arms. Vegetius accordingly, in his first book, de- 7, 9.-Plin., H. N., xxxv., 28.-Adams, Append., s. v.-Moore's votes several chapters to an account of the exercises Anc. Mineral., p. 68, 69.)-10. (Herod., viii., 113; ix., 80.devised for this purpose. The recruits were provi-Xen., Anab., 1., 2, 27; i., 8, 29.--Cyrop., i., 3, 2, 3; vi., 4, 2, et alibi.-Chares Mytil., ap. Athen., iii., 14.-Diod. Sic., v., 45.ded with shields, spears, and other weapons of un- Corn. Nep., Dat., iii.-Amm. Marcell., xxiii., sub fin.--Compare usual size and weight, and in other respects ex-Gen., xxiv., 22, 30, 47.-Ezek., xxiii., 42.-2 Sam., i., 10.-Wilpressly adapted for the discipline of the drill. The L(ix, 57.)-2. (Eph., vi., 14-17.)-3. (Æn., ii., 470.) kinson's Customs of Anc. Egypt, vol. iii., p. 374, 375.)-11. (CL Among the Romans we most commonly read of armillæ as conferred upon soldiers for deeds of extraordinary merit. (See the next woodcut.) An inIt does not appear that armillæ were subsequently stance of this occurs in Livy, where, after a victoworn among the Greeks by the male sex. But those ry, one of the consuls bestows golden crowns and ladies who aimed at elegance and fashion had both bracelets upon two officers, four centurions, and a armlets (repibpaxióvia) and bracelets (Teрiкáрmia, manipulus of hastati, and gives silver horns and Tepixeipia, aкpoxeipia), of various materials, shapes, bracelets to others, who were either foreigners, or and styles of ornament. In a comedy of Plautus, younger and of inferior rank. Pliny says that formed upon a Greek model, armillæ are mention-crowns and bracelets of gold were given to citizens, ed as parts of female attire, and one kind is distin- and not to foreigners. These military honours are guished by the name of spinter. This term (optyk- enumerated in the inscriptions upon various ancient Thp) is manifestly derived from oplyyw (to com- monuments raised to the memory of Roman officers press), and its application is explained from the cir- and soldiers, stating that the emperor had presented cumstance that the bracelet so denominated kept its them torquibus, armillis, phaleris, &c., and often replace by compressing the arm of the wearer. The cording the exact number of these several decoraarmilla was, in fact, either a thin plate of metal, or tions. The following form of words used in cona wire of considerable thickness; and, although ferring them is preserved by Valerius Maximus:5 sometimes a complete ring, it was much more fre- "Imperator te argenteis armillis donat." quently made without having its ends joined; it was then curved, so as to require, when put on, to be slightly expanded by having its ends drawn apart from one another; and, according to its length, it went once, twice, or thrice round the arm, or even a greater number of times. When it made several turns, it assumed the form so clearly defined by Homer in the expression yvauràs hukas, "twisted spirals," a form illustrated by numerous armillæ of gold and bronze in our collections of antiques, and exhibited very frequently on the Greek painted vases. (See the annexed woodcut, from Sir William Hamilton's great work, vol. ii., pl. 35.) The Roman females wore bracelets partly for use and partly for ornament. The use of them was to hold amulets. (Vid. AMULETUM.) Pliny gives a variety of directions respecting the remedies to be effected by inserting particular things in bracelets (armilla, brachialia), and wearing them constantly upon the arm. On the same principle, the Emperor Nero, in compliance with the wishes of his mother, sometimes wore on his right arm the exuvia of a serpent, enclosed in a golden armilla. As ornaments, armillæ were worn at Rome chiefly by women of considerable rank. The metallic band was, for this purpose, frequently enriched with precious stones and other beautiful objects. The presents of amber, succina grandia, mentioned by Juvenal as sent to a lady on her birthday, were probably bracelets set with amber.10 In the following woodcut, the first figure represents a gold bracelet discovered at Rome, on the Palatine Mount.11 The rosette in the middle is composed of distinct As in regard to the frontal (vid. AMPYX), SO also in respect of armillæ, the Greeks conceived the attire of a goddess to resemble that of a lady of superior state and beauty. Hence they attributed these decorations to Aphrodite, and traces of a metallic armlet are seen upon the celebrated marble statue of that divinity preserved at Florence. In the British Museum is an inscription, found among the and very delicate leaves. The two starlike flowers ruins of the Parthenon at Athens, which makes dis-on each side have been repeated where the holes for tinct mention of the duoideal upon both the arms of a golden Victory preserved in that temple. time previously remained. It may be imagined, therefore, that the advice of Nestor was only intended as a regular notice for re-forming the army preparatory to inspection, and previously to a return to active service: be that as it may, the practice was afterward general, as well in the East as in the Greek states of Europe. made of two gold wires twisted together, and the mode of fastening it upon the arm by a clasp, is worthy of observation. It has evidently been a lady's ornament. Besides objects finely wrought in gold, and the most beautiful pearls and jewels, ladies' bracelets were also formed to display other exquisite works of art. Böttiger says "it can scarcely be doubted that the most splendid gems, with figures In the fourth book of the Iliad,1 the arrangement cut in relief, were designed to be worn in bracelets of the army previously to an engagement is disby the empresses, and other women of high rank in tinctly described. A line of war-chariots, in which Rome." The same author observes" that the large the chiefs fought, formed the front; the heavy-armbracelets, made with three or four coils, were in-ed foot were in the rear; and the middle space was tended as rewards for the soldiers," and that it would occupied by archers or light-armed men, on whom be ridiculous to suppose such massive ornaments to less reliance could be placed. The warriors were have been designed for women. A specimen of protected by cuirasses, greaves, and helmets, all of these ponderous and highly valuable armillæ is rep-bronze; they carried strong bucklers, and their ofresented in the third of the preceding figures. The original, of pure gold, is more than twice the length of the figure, and was found in Cheshire." If bracelets were worn by a Caligula, it was regarded as a sign of extravagance and effeminacy, being quite opposed to Roman ideas and customs. In general, the epithet armillatus denoted a servile or degraded condition." fensive arms were javelins or pikes, and swords. The battle began by darts being thrown from the chariots as the latter advanced to break the ranks of the enemy: the chariots probably then fell into the intervals between the divisions of the troops who fought on foot; for the latter are said to have moved up in close order and engaged, shield touching shield, and lance opposed to lance, while the lightThe terms armilla and péλiov are used for orna-armed troops, now in the rear of all, or behind the ments of the same kind as those already explained, chariots, discharged their arrows and stones over which were worn upon the ankles, very commonly the heads of the combatants in front. The precept by Africans and Asiatics, rarely by Europeans. A of Nestor, that the warriors should keep their ranks dog-collar is also called armilla (armillatos canes'), in action, according to the manner of their ancesand an iron ring used by carpenters." tors, indicates that a certain degree of regularity had long before been observed in the march of armies, or in the collisions of hostile troops. 9 ARMILUS TRIUM, a Roman festival for the purification of arms. It was celebrated every year on the 14th before the calends of November (Oct. On contemplating the account given by Homer, it 19), when the citizens assembled in arms, and offer- must appear evident that the practice of war in his ed sacrifices in the place called Armilustrum, or age differed from that which was followed by the Vicus Armilustri, in the 13th region of the city. Asiatics, Egyptians, and Greeks of a much later peri*ARMORA CIA (papaviç), Horseradish. (Vid.od, chiefly in the absence of cavalry: a circumstance RHAPHANIS.) which seems to prove that the art of horsemanship, ARMY (GREEK). In the petty states of Greece, though not wholly unknown, since Diomed rides on down to a period long subsequent to their establish- one of the horses which had been taken from the ment, a traveller, when beyond the walls of a town, car of Rhesus,' must have been then very imperfect. was in constant danger of being surprised by an en- The dense array in which the Greeks are representemy, and often the labours of husbandry were car-ed as formed, in the fourth and thirteenth books of ried on by men with arms in their hands. This the Iliad, corresponds to that of the body of troops insecurity of liberty and life must have tended pow-subsequently denominated a phalanx; and these are erfully to have infused a martial spirit among the the first occasions on which great bodies of men are Greeks; and, though they may have borrowed the said to have been so drawn up. But, at the same first principles of war from the nations of the East, it time, it must be remarked, that though the poet was among them that the organization of a military seems in some passages to consider the compact arforce, and the tactics of the field, were brought near- rangement of troops as a matter of great importance; ly to as high a degree of perfection as was consist-yet the issue of the battle is almost always decided ent with the nature of the arms in use before the in- by the personal prowess of individual chieftains, vention of gunpowder. who are able to put to flight whole troops of ordinary soldiers. The attack on Thebes and the war of Troy are the earliest instances in the Grecian history of From a passage in the last book of the Iliad,3 it military actions performed on a considerable scale; appears that during the heroic ages, as they are calland on the latter occasion (probably about B.C. ed, every family in a state was obliged to furnish 1184), an army of 100,000 men is supposed to have one man, or more, who were chosen by lot, when a been assembled. It would seem that the troops of chieftain intended to set out on a military expedi the different states engaged in this war were at first tion. While absent from home, the troops subsisted intermixed with each other; for, in the second book by supplies brought up from their own district, or of the Iliad,11 Nestor is represented as advising Ag-raised in that of the enemy. In the manner last amemnon to divide the army into several bodies, according to the nations or tribes of which it was composed, and to place each division under its own prince. It is scarcely conceivable, however, that such a distribution did not always subsist when nations combined together for one object; and, as the ships of the several states appear to have been drawn up separately, probably the mixture of the troops was only an accidental circumstance, arising from the inactivity in which the army had for some 1. (Sabina, ii, 159.)-2. (p. 157.)-3. (Archæologia, xxvii., 400.)-4. (Suet., Cal., 52.)-5. (Suet., Ner., 30.-Mart., xi., 22.) 6. (Herod., iv., 168.)-7. (Propert., iv., 8, 24.)-8. (Vitruv., 2., 6.)-9. (Festus, s. 1.-Varro, De Ling. Lat., iv., 32; v., 3. Liv, vi. 37.-P. Vict., De Regionibus, U. R.-Inscript. in Grater, p. 250.) 10. (πᾶσα γὰρ ἡ Ἑλλὰς ἐσιδηροφόρει : Thucyd., 1,6.)-11. (1. 302.) mentioned, and by the plunder obtained in piratical excursions to the neighbouring coasts, the Greek army supported itself during the ten years of the Trojan war. When, after the return of the Heraclide, the states of Greece had acquired some stability, the great lawgivers of Sparta and Athens, while forming constitutions for their several people, are said to have made regulations for the military service. To the free citizens only was it thought proper to grant the honour of serving their country in complete armour; and we learn from Herodotus that slaves were made to act as light-armed troops. In the action at Platea against Mardonius, the right wing of the Grecian army was composed of 10,000 La 1. (L. 297-299.)-2. (IL, x., 513, 514.)-3. (1.400.) |