peii, there are paintings of the Lares or domestic gods, under whose care the provisions and all the cooking utensils were placed. 9. CENACULA properly signified rooms to dine in; but after it became the fashion to dine in the upper part of the house, the whole of the rooms above the ground-floor were called canacula,' and hence Festus says, "Conacula dicuntur, ad quæ scalis ascenditur."2 As the rooms on the ground-floor were of different heights, and sometimes reached to the roof, all the rooms on the upper story could not be united with one another, and, consequently, different sets of stairs would be needed to connect them Iwith the lower part of the house, as we find to be the case in houses at Pompeii. Sometimes the stairs had no connexion with the lower part of the house, but ascended at once from the street.1 At Rome the highest floors, as already remarked (p. 516), were usually inhabited by the poor." 10. DIETA was an apartment used for dining in, and for the other purposes of life. It appears to have been smaller than the triclinium. Diæta is also the name given by Pliny to rooms containing three or four bed-chambers (cubicula). Pleasurehouses or summer-houses are also called diætæ.5 11. SOLARIA, properly places for basking in the sun, were terraces on the tops of houses. In the time of Seneca the Romans formed artificial gardens on the tops of their houses, which contained even fruit-trees and fish-ponds." The two woodcuts annexed represent two atria of houses at Pompeii. The first is the atrium of what is usually called the house of the Quæstor. The view is taken near the entrance-hall facing the tablinum, through which the columns of the peristyle and the garden are seen. This atrium, which is a specimen of what Vitruvius calls the Corinthian, is surrounded by various rooms, and is beautifully painted with arabesque designs upon red and yellow grounds. The next woodcut represents the atrium of what is usually called the house of Ceres. In the centre is the impluvium, and the passage at the farther end is the ostium or entrance hall. As there are no pillars around the impluvium, this atrium must belong to the kind called by Vitruvius the Tuscan. The preceding account of the different rooms, and especially of the arrangement of the atrium, tablinum, peristyle, &c., is best illustrated by the houses 1. (Varro, De Ling. Lat., v., 162, ed. Müller.)-2. (Compare Dig. 9, tit. 3, s. 1.) which have been disinterred at Pompeii. The ground-plan of two is accordingly subjoined. The first is the plan of a house, usually called the house of the tragic poet. Like most of the other houses at Pompeii, it had no vestibulum, according to the meaning which we have attached to the word. 1. The ostium or entrance hall, which is six feet wide and nearly thirty long. Near the street-door there is a figure of a large fierce dog worked in mosaic on the pavement, and beneath it is written Cave Canem. The two large rooms on each side of the vestibule appear, from the large openings in front of them, to have been shops; they communicate with the entrance hall, and were, therefore, probably occupied by the master of the house. 2. The atrium, which is about twenty-eight feet in length and twenty in breadth; its impluvium is near the centre of the room. and its floor is paved with white tesseræ, spotted with black. 3. Chambers for the use of the family, or intended for the reception of guests who were entitled to claim hospitality. When a house did not 1. (Liv., xxxix., 14.)-2. (Compare Suet., Vitell., 7.)-3. (Plin., Ep., ii., 17.-Suet., Claud., 10.)-4. (Ep., vi., 5.)-5. (Dig. 30, tit. 1, s. 43; 7, tit. 1, s. 13, 8.)-6. (Plaut., Mil., II., iii., 69.-Id. ib., iv., 25.-Suet., Ner., 16.)-7. (Sen., Ep., 122.Contr. Exc., v., 5.-Suet., Claud., 10.) P N possess an hospitium, or rooms expressly for the reception of guests, they appear to have been lodged in rooms attached to the atrium. (Vid. HoSPITIUM.) 4. A small room with a staircase leading up to the upper rooms. 5. Alæ. 6. The tablinum. 7. The fauces. 8. Peristyle, with Doric columns and garden in the centre. The large room on the right of the peristyle is the triclinium; beside it is the kitchen; and the smaller apartments are cubicula and other rooms for the use of the family. An The next woodcut contains the ground-plan of an insula, which was properly a house not joined to the neighbouring houses by a common wall. insula, however, generally contained several separate houses, or, at least, separate apartments or shops, which were let to different families; and hence the term domus under the emperors appears to be applied to the house where one family lived, whether it were an insula or not, and insula to any hired lodgings. This insula contains a house, surrounded by shops, which belonged to the owner, and were let out by him. The house itself, which is usually called the house of Pansa, evidently belonged to one of the principal men of Pompeii. Including the garden, which is a third of the whole length, it is about 300 feet long and 100 wide. A. Ostium, or entrance-hall, paved with mosaic. B. Tuscan atrium. I. Impluvium. C. Chambers on each side of the atrium, probably for the reception of guests. D. Ala. E. Tablinum, which is open to the peristyle, so that the whole length of the house could be seen at once; but as there is a passage (fauces), F, beside it, the tablinum might probably be closed at the pleasure of the owner. C. Chambers by the fauces and tablinum, of which the use is uncertain. G. Peristyle. D. Ala to the peristyle. C. Cubicula by the side of the peristyle. K. Triclinium. L. Ecus, and by its side there is a passage leading from the peristyle to the garden. M. Back door (posticum ostium) to the street. N. Culina. H. Servants' hall, with a back door to the street. P. Portico of two stories, which proves that the house had an upper floor. The site of the staircase, however, is unknown, though it is thought there is some indication of one in the passage, M. Q. The garden. R. Reservoir for supplying a tank, S. The preceding rooms belonged exclusively to Pansa's house, but there were a good many apart 1. (Festus, s. v.) R S ments besides in the insula which were not in his occupation. a. Six shops let out to tenants. Those on the right and left hand corners were bakers' shops, which contained mills, ovens, &c., at b. The one on the right appears to have been a large establishment, as it contains many rooms. houses of a very mean class, having formerly an upper story. On the other side are two houses much larger, d. c. Two Having given a general description of the rooms of a Roman house, it remains to speak of the (1) floors, (2) walls, (3) ceilings, (4) windows, and (5) the mode of warming the rooms. For the doors, vid. Janua. (1.) The floor (solum) of a room was seldom boarded, though this appears to have been sometimes done (strata solo tabulata1). It was generally covered with stone or marble, or mosaics. The common floors were paved with pieces of bricks, tiles, stones, &c., forming a kind of composition called ruderatio. Another kind of pavement was that called opus Signinum, which was a kind of plaster made of tiles beaten to powder and tempered with mortar. It derived its name from Signia, a town of Italy, celebrated for its tiles. Sometimes pieces of marble were imbedded in a composition ground, which appear to have formed the floors called by Pliny barbarica or subtegulanea, and which probably gave the idea of mosaics. As these floors were beaten down (pavita) with rammers (fistuca), the word pavimentum became the general name for a floor. The kind of pavement called scalpturatum was first introduced in the Temple of Jupiter Capit 1. (Stat., Sylv., I., v., 57.)—2. (Vitruv., vii., 1.)—3. (Plin., H. N., xxxv., 46.) olinus after the beginning of the third Punic war, but | original colours in Gell's Pompeiana, 2d series, became quite common in Rome before the beginning of the Cimbric war. Mosaics, called by Pliny lithostrota (2106orpora), though this word has a more extensive meaning, first came into use in Sulla's time, who made one in the Temple of Fortune at Præneste. Mosaic work was afterward called Musivum opus. The floors of the houses at Pom Mosaic pavements, however, have been discovered at Pompeii, which represent figures and scenes of actual life, and are, in reality, pictures in mosaic. One of the most beautiful of these is given in its 1. (Plin., H. N., xxxvi., 61.)-2. (Id., xxxvi., 64.)-3. (Spartian., Pescen. Nig., 6.-Trebell. Pollio, Trigint. Tyrann., 24.Augustin., De Civ. Dei, xvi., 8.) The general appearance of the walls may be seen from the woodcuts at p. 462, 518. Subjects of all kinds were chosen for painting on the walls, as may be seen by a reference to the Museo Borbonico, Gell, Mazois, &c. The colours seem usually to have been laid upon a dry ground, but were sometimes laid upon it wet, as in the modern fresco painting (colores udo tectorio induceres). The walls also appear to have been sometimes ornamented with raised figures, or a species of bas-relief (typos in tectorio atrioli includere), and sometimes with mosaics." (3.) The ceilings seem originally to have been left uncovered, the beams which supported the roof or the upper story being visible. Afterward planks were placed across these beams at certain intervals, leaving hollow spaces, called lacunaria or laquearia, which were frequently covered with gold and ivory, and sometimes with paintings. There was an arched ceiling in common use, called CAMARA, which is described in a separate article. (4.) The Roman houses had few windows (fenestra). The principal apartments, the atrium, peristyle, &c., were lighted, as we have seen, from above, and the cubicula and other small rooms generally derived their light from them, and not from windows looking into the street. The rooms only on the upper story seem to have been usually lighted by windows. Very few houses in Pompeii have windows on the ground-floor opening into the street, though there is an exception to this in the house of the tragic poet, which has six windows on the ground-floor. Even in this case, however, the windows are not near the ground as in a modern house, but are six feet six inches above the footpavement, which is raised one foot seven inches above the centre of the street. The windows are small, being hardly three feet by two; and at the side there is a wooden frame, in which the window or shutter might be moved backward or forward. 1. (Museo Borbonico, viii., t. 36-45.)-2. (Plin., H. N., xxxvi., 7.)-3. (H. N., xxxv., 37.)-4. (Compare Vitruv., vii., 5.)-5. (Vitruv., vii., 3.)-6. (Cic. ad Att., 1., 10.)-7. (Plin., H. N., xxxvi., 64.)-8. (Hor., Carm., ii., 18.-Plin., H. N., xxxiii., 18. -Sen., Ep., 90.-Suet., Ner., 31.)-9. (Juv., iii., 270.) HOUSE. buildings.1 HYACINTHIA. The lower part of the wall is occupied by a row of | said to have been found in the ruins of ancient red panels four feet and a half high. The following woodcut represents part of the wall, with apertures for windows above it, as it appears from the street. The tiling upon the wall is modern, and is only placed there to preserve it from the weather. הום The windows appear originally to have been merely openings in the wall, closed by means of shutters, which frequently had two leaves (bifores fenestra), whence Ovid2 says, "Pars adaperta fuit, pars altera clausa fenestræ." They are, for this reason, said to be joined when they are shut. Windows were also sometimes covered by a kind of lattice or trellis-work (clathri), and sometimes by network, to prevent serpents and other noxious reptiles from getting in.* Afterward, however, windows were made of a transparent stone, called lapis specularis (mica), which was first found in Hispania Citerior, and afterward in Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and Africa; but the best came from Spain and Cappadocia. It was easily split into the thinnest lamina, but no pieces had been discovered, says Pliny, above five feet long. Windows made of this stone were called specularia. Windows made of glass (vitrum) are first mentioned by Lactantius,' but the discoveries at Pompeii prove that glass was used for windows under the early emperors, as frames of glass and glass windows have been found in several of the houses. (5.) The rooms were heated in winter in different ways; but the Romans had no stoves like ours. The cubicula, triclinia, and other rooms, which were intended for winter use, were built in that part of the house upon which the sun shone most; and in the mild climate of Italy this frequently enabled them to dispense with any artificial mode of warming the rooms. Rooms exposed to the sun in this way were sometimes called heliocamini. The rooms were sometimes heated by hot air, which was introduced by means of pipes from a furnace below, but more frequently by portable furnaces or braziers (foculi), in which coal or charcoal was burned. (Vid. woodcuts, p. 148, 447.) The caminus was also a kind of stove, in which wood appears to have been usually burned, and probably only differed from the foculus in being larger and fixed to one place.10 It has been a subject of much dispute among modern writers, whether the Romans had chimneys for carrying off the smoke. From many passages in ancient writers, it certainly appears that rooms usually had no chimneys, but that the smoke escaped through the windows, doors, and openings in the roof; but chimneys do not appear to have been entirely unknown to the ancients, 12 as some are 1. (Ovid, Ep. ex Pont., III., ., 5.)-2. (Amor., I., v., 3.)-3. (Hor., Carm., 11., 25.)-4. (Plaut., Mil., II., v., 25.-Varro, De Re Rust., 11., 7.)-5. (Plin., H. N., xxxvi., 45.)-6. (Sen., Ep., 90.-Plin., Ep., 11., 17.-Mart., vini., 14.)-7. (De Opif. Dei, 8.) -8. (Plin., Ep., ii, 17.-Dig. 8, tit. 2, s. 17.)-9. (Plin., Ep., i., 17.-Sen., Ep., 90.)-10. (Suet., Vitell., 8.-Hor., Sat., I., v., 81.)-11. (Vitruv., vii., 3.-Hor., 1. c.-Voss ad Virg., Georg., i., 242.)-12. (Becker's Gallus, i., p. 102.) HYACINTHIA ('Yaxivota), a great national festival, celebrated every year at Amycle by the Amycleans and Spartans. The ancient writers who mention this festival do not agree in the name of the divinity in whose honour it was held: some say that it was the Amyclean or the Carnean Apollo; others, that it was the Amyclean hero Hyacinthus; a third and more probable statement assigns the festival to the Amyclæan Apollo and Hyacinthus together. This Amyclæan Apollo, however, with whom Hyacinthus was assimilated in later times, must not be confounded with Apollo, the national divinity of the Dorians. The festival was called after the youthful hero Hyacinthus, who evidently derived his name from the flower Hyacinth (the emblem of death among the ancient Greeks), and whom Apollo accidentally struck dead with a quoit. The Hyacinthia lasted for three days, and began on the longest day of the Spartan month Hecatombeus (the Attic Hecatombæon), at the time when the tender flowers, oppressed by the heat of the sun, drooped their languid heads. On the first and last day of the Hyacinthia sacrifices were offered to the dead, and the death of Hyacinthus was lamented. During these two days nobody wore any garlands at the repasts, nor took bread, but only cakes and similar things, and no paans were sung in praise of Apollo, and when the solemn repasts were over, everybody went home in the greatest quiet and order. This serious and melancholy character was foreign to all the other festivals of Apollo. The second day, however, was wholly spent in public rejoicings and amusements. Amycle was visited by numbers of strangers (avýуvpis tóλoyoç kaì pɛyúλn), and boys played the cithara or sang to the accompaniment of the flute, and celebrated in anapastic metres the praise of Apollo, while others, in splendid attire, performed a horserace in the theatre. This horserace is probably the yov mentioned by Strabo. After this race there followed a number of choruses of youths, conducted by a xoporotos, in which some of their national songs (έixópia лоinμaτα) were sung. During the of the ancient and simple movements with the acsongs of these choruses, dancers performed some companiment of the flute and the song. The Spartan and Amyclæan maidens, after this, riding in chariots made of wicker-work (xáva@pa), and splendidly adorned, performed a beautiful procession. Numerous sacrifices were also offered on this day, and the citizens kept open house for their friends and relatives; and even slaves were allowed to enjoy themselves. One of the favourite meals on this occasion was called koric, and is described by Molpis as consisting of cake, bread, meat, raw herbs, broth, figs, desert, and the seeds of lupine. Some ancient writers, when speaking of the Hyacinthia, apply to the whole festival such epithets as instance, when they call it a merry or joyful solemcan only be used in regard to the second day; for nity. Macrobius states that the Amyclæans wore chaplets of ivy at the Hyacinthia, which can only be true if it be understood of the second day. The incorrectness of these writers is, however, in some degree, excused by the fact that the second day formed the principal part of the festive season, as appears from the description of Didymus, and as 1. (Winckelmann, Schriften über die Herculanischen Entdeckungen.-Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunst.-Mazos, Les Ruines de Pompeii, part ii., Le Palais de Scaurus.-Gell, Pompeiana. Pompéi, Lond., 12mo, 1832-Becker, Gallus.-Schneider ad Vitruv.)-2. (Müller, Orchom., p. 327.-Id., Dor., ii., 8, ◊ 15.)-3. (Hesych., s. v. 'EkaTop6cós-Manso, Sparta, ini.. 2, p. 201.)-4. (vi., p. 278.)-5. (Xen., Agesil., 11., 17.)-6. (Didy mus ap. Athen., iv., p. 139.)-7. (ap. Athen., iv., p. 140.)-8. (Saturn., i., 18.) might also be resorted to by a free citizen when similarly outraged in his own person, if he were more desirous of obtaining compensation for the wrong, than the mere punishment of the wrongdoer, as the penalty incurred by the defendant in the public prosecution accrued to the state, and not to the plaintiff. A fine also of a thousand drachmæ, forfeited by the prosecutor upon his relinquishing his suit or failing to obtain the votes of a fifth of the dicasts, may have contributed to render causes of this kind less frequent, and partly account for the circumstance that there are no speeches extant upon this subject. If, however, the case for the prosecution was both strong and clear, the redress afforded by the public action was prompt and effi may also be inferred from Xenophon,' who makes | vate lawsuit.1 These two last-mentioned actions the pean the principal part of the Hyacinthia. The great importance attached to this festival by the Amyclæans and Lacedæmonians is seen from the fact that the Amyclæans, even when they had taken the field against an enemy, always returned home on the approach of the season of the Hyacinthia, that they might not be obliged to neglect its celebration, and that the Lacedæmonians on one occasion concluded a truce of forty days with the town of Eira, merely to be able to return home and celebrate the national festival; and that, in a treaty with Sparta, B.C. 421, the Athenians, in order to show their good-will towards Sparta, promised every year to attend the celebration of the Hyacinthia. HYACINTHUS (váкiv0oç), a plant. "The vá-cient. Besides the legitimate protectors of women Kivlog of the poets," observes Adams, "would seem and children, any Athenian citizen, in the enjoyin some places to be referable to the Gladiolus com- ment of his full franchise, might volunteer an acmunis, and in others to the Delphinium Ajacis, or cusation: the declaration was laid before the thesLarkspur. Matthiolus and Sprengel concur in hold-mothetæ, who, except it were hindered by extraoring the vάkivooç of Dioscorides to be the Hyacin-dinary public business, were bound not to defer the thus Orientalis. The Vaccinia' of Virgil was most trial before the Heliæa beyond a month. The seprobably the Delphinium ajacis. The уpanтà váкiv-verity of the sentence extended to confiscation or doc of Theocritus was no doubt the same." death; and if the latter were awarded, the crimi- Quicksilver is first spoken of by Aristotle and Theophrastus under the name of fluid silver (apyvpoç xuros). Its nature, however, as Dr. Moore remarks, does not seem to have been much understood even four cen II. A precious stone, about which considerable doubt prevails. De Laet thinks it was some species of Amethyst. Salmasius, on the other hand, supposes it to have been our Ruby, which the Persians and Arabians still call Yacut, a name derived from ὑάκινθος. "This name, however," observes Dr. Moore," may have been used with as little discrimination as that of ruby is at present, to designate several very different minerals, and among them may be some that are still called Hyacinth; as several varieties of zircon, and the Hyacinth of Com-turies later; for Pliny distinguishes between quickpostella, a red ferruginous quartz. Jameson enu- silver, Argentum vivum," and the liquid silver, merates several different minerals besides zircon Hydrargyrus, procured, by processes which he deto which the name Hyacinth has been applied; and scribes, from minium, or native cinnabar. he appears to think that the ancient Hyacinth was either amethyst or sapphire."7 66 HYDRAULA (vdpavλnç), an Organist. According to an author quoted by Athenæus, the first or*HYALOEIDES (vaλoɛidnç), a precious stone. ganist was Ctesibius of Alexandrea, who lived about Sir J. Hill remarks, that it had been supposed to be B.C. 200. He evidently took the idea of his organ the Asteria, the Iris, the Lapis specularis, and the from the SYRINX or Pandean pipes, a musical inDiamond. All that he can determine respecting it strument of the highest antiquity among the Greeks. is, that it is the Astrios of Pliny. (Vid. ASTRIOS.) His object being to employ a row of pipes of great *HYALUS (va2.oç) Glass. (Vid. VITRUM.) size, and capable of emitting the most powerful as ΥΒΡΕΩΣ ΓΡΑΦΗ (ὕβρεως γραφή). This action well as the softest sounds, he contrived the means was the principal remedy prescribed by the Attic law of adapting keys with levers (aykovíσkoi), and with for wanton and contumelious injury to the person, perforated sliders (uara), to open and shut the whether in the nature of indecent (di alexpovpyías) mouths of the pipes (y2woσókoμa), a supply of wind or other assaults (dià many@v). If the offence were being obtained, without intermission, by bellows, in of the former kind, it would always be available which the pressure of water performed the same when the sufferer was a minor of either sex (for part which is fulfilled in the modern organ by a the consent of the infant was immaterial), or when weight. On this account, the instrument invented an adult female was forcibly violated: and this pro- by Ctesibius was called the water-organ (úðpavλıç ;* tection was extended to all conditions of life, wheth-dрavhiкòv öpуúvov3). Its pipes were partly of er bond or free. The legal representative (kúpɩoç), however, of such person might, if he pleased, consider the injury as a private rather than a public wrong, and sue for damages in a civil action. (Vid. BIAION AIKH.) With respect to common assaults, a prosecution of this kind seems to have been allowable only when the object of a wanton attack was a free person,10 as the essence of the offence lay in its contumely, and a slave could incur no degradation by receiving a blow, though the injury, The organ was well adapted to gratify the Roif slight, might entitle the master to recover dam-man people in the splendid entertainments provided ages for the battery (aixía), or, if serious, for the for them by the emperors and other opulent persons. loss of his services (vid. BAABHE AIKH), in a pri 1. (Xen., Hellen., iv., 5, 11.-Compare Agesil., 2, 17.)-2. (Xen., Hellen., iv., 5, 11.-Paus., iii., 10, ◊ 1.)-3. (Paus., iv., 19, 3.)-4. (Thucyd., v., 23.)-5. (Il., xiv., 318.-Theocrit,, Id., x.-Theophrast., H. P., vi., 8.-Dioscor., iv., 63.-Adams, Append., s. v.)-6. (Adams, Append., s. v.)-7. (Moore's Anc. Mineralogy, p. 169.)-8. (Adams, Append., s. v.)-9. (Demosth., c. Meid., 529, 15.)-10. (Aristot., Rhet., ., 24.) bronze (xažkɛin upoúpa ;o seges aëna1), and partly of reed. The number of its stops, and, consequently, of its rows of pipes, varied from one to eight, so that Tertullian' describes it with reason as an exceedingly complicated instrument. It continued in use so late as the ninth century of our era: in the year 826, a water-organ was erected by a Venetian in the church of Aquis-granum, the modern Aix-laChapelle.1o 1. (Meier, Att. Proc., 326.)-2. (Demosth., 1. c.-Eschin., c. Tim., 41.)-3. (iv., 75.-Compare Plin.. H. N., vii., 38.)-4. (Athen., 1. c.)-5. (Hero, Spirit.-Vitruv., x., 13.-Schneider, ad loc.--Drieberg, die Pneum. Erfindungen der Griechen, p. 5361.-Plin., H. N., 1x., 8.-Cic., Tusc., ii., 18.)-6. (Jul. Imp. in Brunck's Anal., ii., 403.)-7. (Claud., De Mall. Theod. Cons., 316.)-8. (Vitruv., 1. c.)-9. (De Auima, 14.)--10. (Quix, Münster Kirche in Aachen, p. 14.) |