CALUMNIA. for their use. Thus says Festus: "Calones militum | servi, quia ligneas clavas gerebant, quæ Græci kaha vocabant." So, also, Servius: "Calas dicebant majores nostri fustes, quos portabant servi sequentes dominos ad pralia” From the same word καλον comes kaλóñovę, a shoemaker's last. These calones are generally supposed to have been slaves, and almost formed a part of the army, as we may learn from many passages in Cæsar: in fact, we are told by Josephus that, from living always with the soldiers, and being present at their exercises, they were inferior to them alone in skill and valour. The word calo, however, was not confined to this signification, but was also applied to farm-servants, instances of which usage are found in Horace.3 CAMELOPARDALIS. In the case of actiones, the calumnia of the actor was checked by the calumniæ judicium, the judicium contrarium, the jusjurandum calumniæ, and the restipulatio, which are particularly described by Gaius. The defendant might in all cases avail himself of the calumniæ judicium, by which the plaintiff, if he was found to be guilty of calumnia, was mulcted to the defendant in the tenth part of the value of the object-matter of the suit. But the actor was not mulcted in this action, unless it was shown that he brought his suit without foundation, knowingly and designedly. In the contrarium judicium, of which the defendant could only avail himself in certain cases, the rectitude of the plaintiff's purpose did not save him from the penalty. Instead of In Cæsar this term is generally found by itself; adopting either of these modes of proceeding, the in Tacitus it is coupled and made almost identical defendant might require the plaintiff to take the with lixa. Still the calones and lixe were not the oath of calumnia, which was to the effect, "Se non same: the latter, in fact, were freemen, who mere- calumniæ causa agere." In some cases the defendly followed the camp for the purposes of gain and ant also was required by the prætor to swear that merchandise, and were so far from being indispen- he did not dispute the plaintiff's claim, calumniæ sable to an army that they were sometimes forbid-causa. den to follow it (ne lixa sequerentur exercitum3). defendant to his oath (jusjurandum ei deferebat), Thus, again, we read of the “lixe mercatoresque, qui the defendant might put the plaintiff to his oath of plaustris merces portabant," words which plainly calumny. In some actions, the oath of calumny show that the lixe were traders and dealers. Livy on the part of the plaintiff was a necessary prelimialso speaks of them as carrying on business. The nary to the action. In all judicia publica, it seems term itself is supposed to be connected with lixa, that the oath of calumnia was required from the an old word signifying water, inasmuch as the lixæ accuser. supplied this article to the soldiers: since, however, they probably furnished ready-cooked provisions to the soldiers, it seems not unlikely that their appellation may have some allusion to this circumstance. CAL OPUS, CALOPODIUM. (Vid. FORMA.) CALUMNIA. Calumniari is defined by Marcian, "Falsa crimina intendere;" a definition which, as there given, was only intended to apply to criminal matters. The definition of Paulus applies to matters both criminal and civil: "Calumniosus est qui sciens prudensque per fraudem negotium alicui comparat." Cicero speaks of "calumnia," and of the "nimis callida et malitiosa juris interpretatio," as things related. Gaius says, "Calumnia in adfectu est, sicut furti crimen," the criminality was to be determined by the intention. Generally speaking, if the plaintiff put the 2 If the restipulationis pœna was required from the actor, the defendant could not have the benefit of the calumniæ judicium, or of the oath of calumny; and the judicium contrarium was not applicable to such cases. Persons who for money either did or neglected to do certain things, calumniæ causa, were liable to certain actions.' CA'MARA (кaμápa) or CAMERA is used in two different senses: I. It signifies a particular kind of arched ceiling in use among the Romans, and, most probably, common also to the Greeks, to whose language the word belongs. It was formed by semicircular bands or beams of wood, arranged at small lateral distances, over which a coating of lath and plaster was spread, and the whole covered in by a roof, resembling in construction the hooped awnings in use among us, or like the segment of a cart-wheel, from which the expression rotatio camararum is derived." Subsequently to the age of Augustus, it became the fashion to line the camara with plates of glass; hence they are termed vitrea.1 When an accuser failed in his proof, and the reus was acquitted, there might be an inquiry into the conduct and motives of the accuser. If the person who made this judicial inquiry (qui cognovit) found that the accuser had merely acted from error of judgment, he acquitted him in the form non probasti; if he convicted him of evil intention, he declared his sentence in the words calumniatus es, which sentence was followed by the legal punish-pable of containing from twenty-five to thirty men, ment. According to Marcian, as above quoted, the punishment for calumnia was fixed by the lex Remmia, or, as it is sometimes, perhaps incorrectly, named, the lex Memmia.11 But it is not known when this lex was passed, nor what were its penalties. It appears from Cicero12 that the false accuser might be branded on the forehead with the letter K, the initial of Kalumnia; and it has been conjectured, though it is a mere conjecture, that this punishment was inflicted by the lex Remmia. The punishment for calumnia was also exsilium, relegatio in insulam, or loss of rank (ordinis amissio); but probably only in criminal cases, or in matters relating to status.13 1. (Ad En., v., 1.)-2. (Plato, Symp.)-3. (Epist., I., xiv., 42.—Sat., L., v., 103.)-4. (Sall., Bell. Jug., c. 45.)-5. (Hirtius. De Bell. Afric., c. 75.)-6. (v., 8.)-7. (Vid. Sail., 1. c.)-8. (Dig. 48, tit. 16, s. 1.)--9. (Sentent. Recept., i., tit. 5.)-10. (De Of, i, 10.)-11. (Val. Max., 11., 7, 9.-12. (Pro Sext. Rose. Amerino, c. 20.)-13. (Paulus, Sentent. Recept., v., 1, 5; v., 4, 11.) II. Small boats used in early times by the people who inhabited the shores of the Palus Mæotis, ca were termed kaμápaι by the Greeks. They were made to work fore and aft, like the fast-sailing proas of the Indian seas, and continued in use until the age of Tacitus, by whom they are still named camara, and by whom their construction and uses are described.10 *CAMELOPARD'ALIS (Kaμnhoжápdaλic), the Camelopard or Giraffe, the Giraffa Camelopardalis, L. "The name Giraffa," observes Lt. Col. Smith, "is derived from the Arabic Zuraphahta, which is itself corrupted from Amharir Zirataka; and the Romans, who had seen this animal several times exhibited from the period when Julius Cæsar first displayed one to the people, described it under the name of Camelopardalis, on account of its similarity to the Camel in form, and to the Panther or 1. (iv., 174-181.)-2. (Dig. 12, tit. 2, s. 37.)-3. (Dig. 3, tit. 6.)-4. (Cic., ad Quint. Fratr., iii., 1, 1.-Propert., III., ii., 10.-Plin., H. N., xxxvi., 64.)-5. (Vitruv., vii., 3.)-6. (Salmas. in Spart., Hadr., c. 10.)-7. (Plin., 1. c.-Compare Statius, Sylv., 1., ii., 53.)-8. (Strabo, xi., p. 388, ed. Siebenkees.)-9. (Hist., iii., 47.)-10. (Compare Gell., x., 25.) 203 Pardalis in spots. This beautiful animal is noticed | resented in the hieroglyphics, either in domestic by Oppian, Diodorus Siculus, Horace, Strabo,* scenes or in subjects relating to religion. In all and Pliny; but the first satisfactory description is obvious cases, the intelligence of man may be confound in the Ethiopica of Heliodorus. Schneider sidered as acting in unison with the intentions of follows Pallas in referring the updtov of Aristotle Nature; now, as this sagacity to appreciate his to this same animal. Modern naturalists have own interests had already, in the earliest ages, carknown the Giraffe only since Mr. Patterson, Col. ried the Camel over India, China, and Middle RusGordon, and M. le Vaillion found it in South Afri-sia, it is certainly rather surprising that the Romans, ca; but as the Romans were acquainted with the in their frequent wars in Northern Africa, should animal, it must have existed to the north of the not have found them of sufficient importance to be equinoctial line. It would appear, moreover, that mentioned, till Procopius first notices camel-riding a variety or second species is found in Central Af-Moors in arms against Solomon, the lieutenant of rica; for Park, in describing his escape from cap- Belisarius: from that period, and most particularly tivity among the Moors, noticed an animal of a during the progress of the sword of the Koran to gray colour, which he refers to the Camelopardalis. Morocco, the Camel is the most striking, and conLt. Col. Smith considers this animal as the wild 'sidered the most useful animal in the country. It Camel of the mountains, the existence of which is probable that this animal increased in proportion has been attested by several negroes brought from as agriculture diminished; at least the two facts the interior, and in the Prænestine Mosaics, where are coeval. With the Koran, also, the Camel first two spotted Camelopardales are seen together; a lar- crossed the Bosporus, and spread with the Turks ger animal is likewise represented, with short horns, over their present dominions in Europe.""1 but without spots, and the name YABOUC written over. In a drawing of the same mosaic, the word appears to be partly effaced, but to have been PAPOUC. It is remarkable, that while the spotted figures are without a name, the animal in question, occupying that part of the picture which designates the Cataracts of the Nile, should be called by the Ethiopian appellation of the Camelopard, which, according to Pliny, was Nabis, resembling the Hottentot Naip; or, by the second reading, be like the Arabic, or one of its dialects.-The absence of the Giraffe from Europe for three centuries and a half naturally induced a belief that the descriptions of this animal were fabulous, or nearly so, and that a creature of such extraordinary height and apparent disproportions was not to be found among the actual works of nature. This skepticism was first shaken by Le Vaillant, the traveller, and is now completely removed."s *CAMM'ARUS (κúμμapoç or -iç), a variety of the Caris, or Squilla, acording to Athenæus. It is the common Lobster, the Cammarus of Pliny, and the Cancer Cammarus of Linnæus. Aristotle, in the second chapter of the fourth book of his "History of Animals," gives a most faithful and elaborate account of the species, which is still an inhabitant of the Mediterranean." CAMINUS. (Vid. HOUSE.) CAMPESTRE (sc. subligar) was a kind of girdle or apron, which the Roman youths wore round their loins when they exercised naked in the Campus Martius. The campestre was sometimes worn in warm weather in place of the tunic under the toga (campestri sub toga cinctus1). CAMPIDOCTORES were persons who taught soldiers their exercises. In the times of the Republic, this duty was discharged by a centurion, or a veteran soldier of merit and distinction (Exerci*CAME'LUS (káμn2os), the Camel. As Buffon tationibus nostris non veteranorum aliquis, cui decus, remarks, Aristotle has correctly described the two muralis aut civica, sed Græculus magister assistit“). species of Camel, which he calls the Bactrian and CAMPUS MARTIUS. The term campus bethe Arabian, the former being the Camelus Bactri-longs to the language of Sicily, in which it signified anus, L., or the Camel with two hunches, one on a hippodrome or race-course (каμñóç, iññóароμο the shoulders, and the other on the croup; and the Eikeλoiç'); but among the Romans it was used to latter, the Camelus Dromedarius, L., or the species signify an open plain, covered with herbage, and with only one hunch, and of which the Dromedary, set apart for the purpose of exercise or amusement. properly so called, is a breed. The Dromedary of Eight of these plains are enumerated by P. Victor the Greeks is the Mahairy, and is the most celebra- as appertaining to the city of Rome; among which ted for speed. "The name by which these animals the most celebrated was the Campus Martius, so are generally known in Europe is evidently derived called because it was consecrated to the god Mars. from an Eastern root, namely, Djemel of the Arabs, Some difference exists between Livy and Dionysius Gamal or Gimal of the Hebrews, and points out the Halicarnassus respecting the period at which this quarter where they have been domesticated from a consecration took place. The former states' that, period anterior to all historical documents. Al- upon the expulsion of the Tarquins, the people took though the Greek and Roman writers take univer-possession of their property (ager Tarquiniorum), sally as little notice of the Camel as an inhabitant situate between the city and the Tiber, and assignof Northwestern Africa or Egypt, as they speak re-ed it to the god of war, by whose name it was subpeatedly of him in Syria, Arabia, and the rest of Western Asia, we may easily infer, from a consideration of the peculiar structure of this animal, that the predestined habitation of the genus was on the sandy deserts of the Zahara, as well as the plains of Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and Southern Tartary. The silence of profane writers, however, is compensated by the Sacred Writings. In Genesis, the King of Egypt is mentioned as having bestowed Camels upon Abram; consequently, their presence in the valley of the Nile is established before the era of the earliest Greek or Roman writers. yet it is a singular fact, that the Camel is not rep sequently distinguished; whereas the latter says1o that the ager Tarquiniorum had been usurped from that divinity, to whom it belonged of old, and appropriated by the Tarquins, so that it was only restored to its original service upon their expulsion, which gains confirmation from a law of Numa, quoted by Festus," "Secunda spolia in Martis aram in campo Solitaurilia utra voluerit cædito." From the greater extent and importance of this plain beyond all the others, it was often spoken of as the plain, kar' ¿oxv, without any epithet to disAnd 1. (Griffith's Cuvier, vol. iv., p. 37.-Smith's Supplement.)2. (Adams, Append., s. v.)-3. (Augustin., De Civ. Dei., xiv., 1. (Cyneg., iii.)-2. (ii., 51.)-3. (Epist., II., i., 195.)-4. 17.)-4. (Ascon., ad Cic., pro Scauro, p. 30, ed. Orelli.-Hor., (xvii., p. 774, 826, ed. Cas.)-5. (H. N., viii., 27.-Compare Epist., I., xi., 18.)-5. (Veget., i., 13.)-6. (Plin., Paneg., 13.) Geopon., xvi., 22.)—6. (x., 27.)—7. (H. A., ii., 2.)—8. (Griffith's-7. (Hesych.)-8. (Liv., ii., 5.)—9. (1. c.)—10. (v., p. 276, ed Cuvier, vol. iv., p. 151, seqq.-Smith's Supplement.) 1704.)-11. (s. v. Opima.)-12. (Compare Liv., 1., 44.) stance it takes its name. As it was unlawful to bury within the city, or to slay a vestal, whose person, even when polluted by the crime alluded to, was held sacred, this expedient was resorted to in order to elude the superstition against taking away a consecrated life, or giving burial within the city. CANABOS or CINNABOS (κάναβος or κίννα The general designation Campus Martius comprised two plains, which, though generally spoken of collectively, are sometimes distinguished. The former of these was the so-called ager Tarquinio- | 60g) was a figure of wood, in the form of a skeleton, rum, to which Juvenal3 refers, inde Superbi Totum regis agrum; the other was given to the Roman people by the vestal virgin Caia Taratia or Suffetia, and is sometimes called Campus Tiberinus, and sometimes Campus Minor. That the Campus Martius was originally without the city is apparent, first, from the passages of Livy and Dionysius above referred to; secondly, from the custom of holding the Comitia Centuriata there, which could not be held within the Pomarium; hence the word campus is put for the comitia, which also explains the expression of Cicero, fors domina campi, and of Lucan,1o venalis campus, which means "a corrupt voter;" thirdly, because the generals who demanded a triumph, not being allowed to enter the city, remained with their armies in the Campus Martius; and, finally, because it was not lawful to bury within the city, whereas the monuments of the illustrious dead were among the most striking ornaments with which it was embellished.11 (Vid. BUSTUM.) But it was included in the city by Aurelian when he enlarged the walls.12 round which the clay or plaster was laid in forming models. Figures of a similar kind, formed to display the muscles and veins, were studied by painters in order to acquire some knowledge of anatomy." CANA'LIS, which means properly a pipe or gutter for conveying water, is also used in three specific significations: I. To designate a particular part of the Forum Romanum.* 6 It is difficult to determine the precise limits of the Campus Martius, but in general terms it may be described as situated between the Via Lata and Via Flaminia on the north, the Via Recta on the south; as bounded by the Tiber on the west, and "In foro infimo boni homines atque dites ambulant; the Pantheon and gardens of Agrippa towards the In medio propter canalem, ibi ostentatores meri.” east; and the Campus Minor, or Tiberinus, occupied the lower portion of the circuit towards the The immediate spot so designated is not precisely Via Recta, from the Pons Ælius to the Pons Janic-known; but we can make an approximation which ulensis. (Vid. BRIDGE.)? cannot be far from the truth. Before the Cloaca were made, there was a marshy spot in the Forum called the Lacus Curtius; and as the Cloaca Maxima was constructed for the purpose of draining off the waters which flowed down from the Palatine Hill into the Forum, it must have had a mouth in it, which was probably near the centre. The "kennel," therefore, which conducted the waters to this embouchure, was termed Canalis in Foro; and because the idle and indigent among the lower classes were in the habit of frequenting this spot, they were named CANALICOLE. The canalis appears to have had gratings (cancelli) before it, to which Cicero' refers when he says, that after the tribune P. Sextus had arrived at the Columna Menia, “ tantus est ex omnibus spectaculis usque a Capitolio, tantus ex fori cancellis plausus excitatus;" by which he means all classes, both high and low: the upper, The principal edifices which adorned this famous who sat between the Columna Menia and the Capplain are described by Strabo,1 and are amply treat-itol; and the lower, who were stationed near the ed of by Nardini. It was covered with perpetual verdure, and was a favourite resort for air, exercise, or recreation, when the labours of the day were over. 1s Its ample area was crowded by the young, who there initiated themselves in all warlike and athletic exercises, and in the games usual to the palæstra; for which purpose the contiguous Tiber rendered it peculiarly appropriate in early times, before public baths were established.17 Hence campus is used as "a field" for any exercise, mental or bodily. Wooden horses were also kept in the Campus Martius, under porticoes in winter, and in the open plain during summer, in order to give expertness in mounting and dismounting; a necessary practice when stirrups were not in use.19 Horse-races (equiria) also took place here, unless when the campus was overflowed, upon which occasions they were removed to the Campus Martialis on the Calian.20 CAMPUS SCELERATUS was a spot within the walls, and close by the Porta Collina, where those of the vestal virgins who had transgressed their Vows were entombed alive, from which circum 1. (Propert., ., 16, 34.—Ovid, Fast., vi., 237.—Liv., xl., 45. cancelli of the canalis. In the modern city of Rome, the foul waters empty themselves into the sewers through an archway nearly six feet high, the mouth of which is closed by an iron grating called cancello, so that the passer-by is annoyed by the effluvia exhaling from them; which, we learn from a passage in Tertullian, was also the case in the ancient city. II. CANALIS is used by Vitruvius' to signify the channel which lies between the volutes of an Ionic capital, above the cymatium or echinus, which may be understood by referring to the representation of an Ionic capital given in the article ASTRAGALUS. 8 III. In reference to aquæducts, CANALIS is used by Frontinus1o for a conduit of water running parallel to the main course (specus), though detached from it. Accurately speaking, it therefore means a pipe of lead or clay," or of wood,12 attached to the aquæduct, which brought a stream of water from the same source, but for some specific use, and not for general distribution; though the word is sometimes used for a watercourse of any kind. CAN'ATHRON (κúva@pov), a carriage, the upper part of which was made of basket-work, or, more properly, the basket itself, which was fixed in the carriage.13 Homer calls this kind of basket πɛiρivç.1 14 -Lucan, i., 180.-Her., Carm., III., i., 10.-Cic., Cat., i., 5.De Off, 1, 29.)-2. (Strabo, v., 8.)-3. (Sat., vi., 525.)-4. 1. (Liv., viii., 15.)-2. (Compare Festus, s. v. Probrum.)-3. (Aul. Gell., v., 7-Pha., H. N., xxxiv., 11.)-5. (Gell. et Plin., (Aristot., H. A., iii., 5.-Id., De Gen. An., ii., 6.-Pollux, Onom., Il ce.)-6. (Catull., Iv., 3.)-7. (Nardini, Rom. Ant., vi., 5.- vii., 164; x., 189.-Suid. et Hesych., s. v.-Müller, Archeol. der Dmat., De Urbe Rom., i., 8.)-8. (Cic., De Orat., iii., 42.)-9. Kunst, 305, n. 7.)-4. (Plaut., Curcul., IV., i., 14.)-5. (Var(in Pis., 2.)-10. (1. c.)—11. (Strabo, 1. c.-Plut., Pomp., p. ro, De Ling. Lat., v., 149, ed. Müller.)-6. (Festus, s. v.-Com647. D.-Appian, Bell. Civ., i., p. 418.-Suet., Aug., c. 100.-pare Aul. Gel., iv., 20.)-7. (Pro Sext., 58.)-8. (De Pall., c. 5.) Chand, c. 1.-12. (Nardini, Rom. Ant., i., 8.)-13. (v., 8.)-14.-9. (iii., 3, p. 97, ed. Bipont.)-10. (c. 67.)-11. (Vitruv., viii., (Rom. Ant., vi., 5-9.)-15. (Hor., Carm., III., vii., 25.)-16. 7.)-12. (Palladio, ix., 11.)-13. (Xen., Ages., viii., 7.-Plut., (H, Epist., 1., vii., 59.)-17. (Strabo, 1. c.-Veget., i., 10.)- Ages., c. 19.)-14. (II., xxiv., 190, 267.-Eustath., ad loc.--Com1. Cic., De Off., i., 18.-Acad., ., 35.--Pro Muren., 8.)-19. pare Sturz, Lex. Xenoph., s. v. xávalpov.-Schieffer, De Re Ve(Veget, 1., 23.)—20. (Festus, s. v.) hic., p. 68.) 205 CANDELABRUM. *CANCER, the Crab. (Vid. CARCINUS.) CANDE'LÁ, a candle, made either of wax (cerea) or tallow (sebacea), was used universally by the Romans before the invention of oil lamps (lucerna).1 They used for a wick the pith of a kind of rush called scirpus. In later times candela were only used by the poorer classes; the houses of the more wealthy were always lighted by lucernæ.❜ 2 CANDELA BRUM was originally used as a candlestick, but was afterward used to support lamps (λvxvouxos), in which signification it most commonly occurs. The candelabra of this kind were usually made to stand upon the ground, and were of a considerable height. The most common kind were made of wood; but those which have been found in Herculaneum and Pompeii are mostly of bronze. Sometimes they were made of the more precious metals, and even of jewels, as was the one which Antiochus intended to dedicate to Jupiter Capitolinus. In the temples of the gods and palaces there were frequently large candelabra made of marble, and fastened to the ground." There is a great resemblance in the general plan and appearance of most of the candelabra which have been found. They usually consist of three parts: 1. the foot (ẞáris); 2. the shaft or stem (κavλós); 3. the plinth or tray (diσкós), large enough for a lamp to stand on, or with a socket to receive a wax candle. The foot usually consists of three lions' or griffins' feet, ornamented with leaves; and the shaft, which is either plain or fluted, generally ends in a kind of capital, on which the tray rests for supporting the lamp. Sometimes we find a figure between the capital and the tray, as is seen in the candelabrum on the right hand in the annexed wood one on the left hand is also a representation of a candelabrum found in the same city,' and is made with a sliding shaft, by which the light might be raised or lowered at pleasure. The best candelabra were made at Ægina and Tarentum.2 There are also candelabra of various other forms, though those which have been given above are by far the most common. They sometimes consist of a figure supporting a lamp,3 or of a figure, by the side of which the shaft is placed with two branches, each of which terminates in a flat disc, upon which a lamp was placed. A candelabrum of the latter cut, which is taken from the Museo Borbonico," and represents a candelabrum found in Pompeii. The 1. (Varro, De Ling. Lat., v., 34.-Martial, xiv., 43.-Athen., xv., p. 700.)-2. (Plin., H. N., xvi., 70.)-3. (Juv., Sat., iii., 287.)-4. (CIC., ad Quint. Fratr., iii., 7.-Martial, xiv., 44.Petron., c. 95.-Athen., xv., p. 700.)-5. (Cic., Verr., iv., 28.)6. (Museo, Pro-Clem, iv., 1,5; v., 1, 3.)—7. (iv., pl. 57.) different from those which have been described, which did not stand upon the ground, but was pla 1. (Mus. Borb., vi.. pl. 61.)-2. (Plin., II. N., xxxiv., 6.)-3. (Mus. Borb, vii, pl. 15.)-4. (Mus. Putb., iv., pl. 59.) CANEPHOROS. ced upon the table. These candelabra usually consist of pillars, from the capitals of which several lamps hang down, or of trees, from whose branches lamps also are suspended. The preceding woodcut represents a very elegant candelabrum of this kind, found in Pompeii.1 The original, including the stand, is three feet high. The pillar is not placed in the centre, but at one end of the plinth, which is the case in almost every candelabrum of this description yet found. The plinth is inlaid in imitation of a vine, the leaves of which are of silver, the stem and fruit of bright bronze. On one side is an altar with wood and fire upon it, and on the other a Bacchus riding on a tiger. CANDYS (Kávovç), a gown worn by the Medes and Persians over their trousers and other garments. It had wide sleeves, and was made of woollen cloth, which was either purple or of some other splendid colour. In the Persepolitan sculptures, nearly all the principal personages are clothed in it. The three here shown are taken from Sir R. K. Porter's Travels.' We observe that the persons represented in these sculptures commonly put their hands through the sleeves (dLELpKÓTES Tàs xeipas dià rův kavdówv), but sometimes keep them out of the sleeves (w Tv xupid); a distinction noticed by Xenophon. The Persian candys, which Strabo describes as a "flowered tunic with sleeves," corresponded to the woollen tunic worn by the Babylonians over their linen shirt (eipiveov Kiūva énevðúvei;“ kπevdúrns épeoûç”). A gown of the same kind is still worn by the Arabians, Turks, and other Orientals, and by both sexes. CANE PHOROS (kavпgópoç). When a sacrifice was to be offered, the round cake (тpoxía plots; zóravov, ¿hý, mola salsa), the chaplet of flowers, the knife used to slay the victim, and sometimes the frankincense, were deposited in a flat circular basket (káveov, canistrum), and this was frequently carried by a virgin on her head to the altar. The practice was observed more especially at Athens. When a private man sacrificed, either his daughter or some unmarried female of his family officiated as his canephoros ;10 but in the Panathenaia, the Dionysia, and other public festivals, two virgins of the first Athenian families were appointed for the purpose. Their function is described by Ovid in the following lines: "Illa forte die casta de more puellæ Vertice supposito festas in Palladis arces Pura coronatis portabant sacra canistris."11 That the office was accounted highly honourable appears from the fact that the resentment of Harmodius, which instigated him to kill Hipparchus, arose from the insult offered by the latter in forbid1. (Mus. Borb., 11., pl. 13.)-2. (Xen., Cyr., i., 3, ◊ 2.-Anab., i., 5, 8.-Diod. Sic., xvii., 77.)-3. (vol. i., pl. 49.)-4. (Cyrop., v3, 10, 13.)-5. (xv., 3, 19.)-6. (Herod., i., 195.)-7. (Strabo, xvi., 1, 20.)-8. (Addei Epigr., Brunck, ii., 241.)-9. (han, V. H, xi., 5.)—10. (Aristoph., Acharn., 241-252.)-11. (Met., 11., 713–715.) CANIS. ding the sister of Harmodius to walk as canephoros in the Panathenaic procession. An antefixa in the British Museum (see woodcut) represents the two canephorae approaching a candelabrum. Each of them elevates one arm to support the basket, while холого she slightly raises her tunic with the other. This attitude was much admired by ancient artists. Pliny2 mentions a marble canephoros by Scopas, and Cicero describes a pair in bronze, which were the exquisite work of Polycletus. (Vid. CARYATIS.) *CAN'CAMUM (kávkaμov), a substance mentioned by Dioscorides, and which Paul of Ægina3 describes as the gum of an Arabian tree, resembling myrrh, and used in perfumes. Avicenna calls it a gum of a horrid taste. Alston remarks that "some have taken Lacca to be the Cancamum Dioscoridis; but it seems to have been unknown to the ancient Greeks." Upon the whole, Sprengel inclines to the supposition that it may have been a species of the Amyris Kataf. CANICOLE. (Vid. CANALIS.) *CANICULA. (Vid. SIRIUS.) *CANIS (kúwv), the Dog. "The parent-stock of this faithful friend of man must always remain uncertain. Some zoologists are of opinion that the breed is derived from the wolf; others, that it is a familiarized jackal: all agree that no trace of it is to be found in a primitive state of nature. That there were dogs, or, rather, animals of the canine form, in Europe long ago, we have evidence from their remains; and that there are wild dogs we also know. India, for example, affords many of them, living in a state of complete independence, and without any indication of a wish to approach the dwellings of man. These dogs, however, though they have been accurately noticed by competent observers, do not throw much light upon the question. The most probable opinion is that advanced by Bell, in his History of British Quadrupeds.' This author thus sums up: Upon the whole, the argument in favour of the view which I have taken, that the wolf is probably the original of all the canine races, may be stated as follows: the structure of the animal is identical, or so nearly so as to afford the strongest à priori evidence in its favour. The Dog must have been derived from an animal susceptible of the highest degree of domestication, and capable of great affection for mankind; which has been abundantly proved of the wolf. Dogs having returned to a wild state, and continued in that condition through many generations, exhibit characters which approximate more and fluence of domestication ceases to act. The two more to those of the wolf, in proportion as the inanimals, moreover, will breed together, and produce fertile young; and the period of gestation is the same. The period at which the domestication of the Dog first took place is wholly lost in the mist of antiquity. The earliest mention of it in the 1. (Thucyd., vi., 56.-Elian, V. H., xi., 8.)-2. (H. N., xxxvi., 4, 7.)-3. (Verr., II., iv., 3.)—4. (i., 23.)—5. (vii, 3.)— 6. (Adams, Append., s, v.) |