jects, they promised an amelioration of their forest code, but uniformly retracted their concessions when the danger was over '.

Between people thus treated, and their rulers, no cordiality could exist, and it appeared necessary to the safety of the latter that no Englishman should hold any place of importance. The powers of government were entrusted to such rapacious adventurers as Ralph Flambard and William of Ypres, Saxon bishops were replaced by Norman ones; but although the colloquial use of the Norman-French language was a necessary innovation at first, the change ran in the contrary di

rection, and the second or third generation of the victors at Hastings spoke in common life a language which was much more intelligible to their Saxon countrymen than to their Norman kindred.

In fact, the Saxon and Danish races, though borne down for a while, were not crushed; and when the death of the last of the Norman kings left the throne vacant, the young Henry of Anjou was received by the main body of the people, not as the heir of the Conqueror, but as the lineal representative of "the right royal race,” the descendants of Cerdic.

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William I. usually bears the whole odium of the afforestation which proved so grievous to the English people; but it appears from the charter of Stephen, that William II. and Henry I. had also added to the royal forests: these latter additions Stephen promises to restore to the owners, in terms which seem to imply that they had been forcibly seized.

8 Ralph, a Norman chaplain of vile character, was by Willam Rufus made bishop of Durham, but by Henry I. was deprived of his see, and imprisoned. He escaped, and went into exile, but having made his peace by betraying a city entrusted to him (Lisieux), he returned some years after, and held his bishopric till his death. William of Ypres, a Fleming, was Stephen's general, and received from him the earldom of Kent. His ra

vages made him so unpopular, that on the king's death he fled from England, and entered a monastery, where he died in 1162.

hOne Norman monk, however, Guitmond, had the virtue to refuse such preferment, and the courage to reproach the spoilers with their barbarous usage of the vanquished. His strictures gave such great offence that he was obliged to withdraw from Normandy, but he was afterwards, by Pope Urban II., made bishop of Aversa. His eloquent letter to William has been preserved by Orderic.

The first Norman-French document is of the reign of John, and the use of the language in the law courts belongs to the reign of Edward I. Of course colloquially the Normans used French.

WILLIAM, the illegitimate son of Robert, sixth duke of Normandy, was born at Falaise about the end of the year 1027. In 1035 his father died, but William only obtained full possession of the duchy after several contests with his neighbours and the king of France, in 1056. His father's sister, Emma, being mother to Edward the Confessor, William alleged that that prince had named him heir to the crown of England, and he successfully asserted his claim at the battle of Hastings, after gaining which, on the 14th October, 1066, he advanced on London and was crowned king at Westminster on the following Christmas-day; the troubled character of his reign being aptly foreshadowed by a tumult on the occasion, in which some houses were burnt, and many people slain.

He granted charters to several towns, among them to London, in which he promised that each man should be "law worthy" as in King Edward's days, and that no one should do them wrong, but he forcibly resumed most of them a few years after.

William's reign was passed, after a brief attempt at conciliation at his first coming, in a systematic endeavour to crush his new subjects. Churches and towns were destroyed, and whole districts laid waste, sometimes to punish unsuccessful revolt, sometimes to provide against hostile invasion, and sometimes to furnish scope for the chase, though it appears from Domesday Book that this latter matter has been exaggerated1. His wars with France were not altogether successful, and his latter years were embittered by the rebellions of his sons. He died Sept. 9, 1087, at Rouen, from an accidental injury, and was buried at Caen. The splendid monument raised to his memory by his son William was destroyed in the religious wars in France in the 16th century

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daughter of Baldwin V., count of Flanders, by whom he had a family of four sons and five (perhaps six) daughters. Matilda died Nov. 2, 1083, and was buried at Caen. Their children were:

1. Robert, known as Courthose, born probably about 1056, who became duke of Normandy, went to the Crusade, was twice defeated in his claim on the crown of England, and at length, being made prisoner by his brother Henry, died at Cardiff Castle, Feb. 10, 1135, after a captivity of 28 years. The tale of his having been blinded by his brother Henry's order, does not rest on satisfactory authority. He outlived his two sons, who both met violent deaths; William, count of Flanders, being killed at Alost in 1128, and Henry, an illegitimate son, in May, 1100, whilst hunting in the New Forest.

2. Richard, born in 1058, and known as Richard of Bernay", was killed by a stag in the New Forest, or perhaps died from a fever contracted there,

before the death of his father.

3. WILLIAM, and 4, HENRY, became kings of England.

5. Cecilia became a nun at Fecamp, at Easter, 1075, and afterwards abbess of Holy Trinity, Caen, where she died, in July 30, 1126.

6. Ádeliza died young. 7. Matilda, betrothed to Alphonso of Castile, died on her journey to Spain,

about 1079.

8. Constance, married to Alan, duke of Bretagne, died Aug. 13, 1090.

9. Adela, married to Stephen of Blois. She governed his dominions during his absence on the Crusade, and, at length taking the veil, died in 1137.

Gundred, who became the wife of William Warrenne, and died in 1085, is often stated to have been a daughter of William I., but this is probably a mistake".

William Peverel, an apocryphal natural son of the king, received large estates in Derbyshire and elsewhere,

A place in the bailliage of Alençon, in Normandy.

• She is supposed to have been his step-daughter, the issue of Matilda by a former marriage.

P With the main features of this agrees the character given in the Heimskringla, or Chronicle of the Sea-kings of Norway: "Earl William was stouter and stronger than other men, a great horse

Arms ascribed to William I.

"Gules, two lions passant gardant in pale, or."

The Norman writers praise William as a wise and pious king, but the Saxon Chronicler, who, as he himself declares, "had often looked upon him, and lived some time in his court," has drawn a character far less favourable P. William, he says, was wise and rich, mild to good men, but beyond all

measure severe to those who withstood his will. He affected great state and dignity, and held a splendid court thrice a year, in Westminster, Winchester, and Gloucester, to which all He also made "good peace," so that the nobles were obliged to repair.

no man durst slay or rob another; yet in his time men had many sorhe cast down earls and bishops, and rows. He ruled so absolutely, that abbots and thanes. His rich men moaned, and poor men trembled ; but he was so stern, he recked not the hatred of them all, for they must follow his will, if they would have his peace, or lands or possessions, or even life. "Alas!" he concludes, "that any man should thus exalt himself, and boast over all others! May the almighty God shew mercy to his soul, and grant him forgiveness of his sins."

A.D. 1066.

William is crowned at Westminster,

man and warrior, but stern; and a very wise man, but not considered a man to be trusted.

9 His own practice, however, did not conform to this; for we read in the Saxon Chronicle (anno 1086): "according to his custom, he collected a very large sum of money from his people, whenever he could, whether with justice or without."

December 25, by Aldred, archbishop of York"; "and he gave him a pledge upon Christ's Book, and also swore, before he would set the crown upon his head, that he would govern this nation as well as any king before him had at the best done, if they would be faithful to him. Nevertheless, he laid a tribute on the people very heavy .... and men delivered him hostages, and afterwards bought their land.”

A.D. 1067.

Godred Cronan, a descendant of Sihtric of Northumberland", who had escaped from the battle of Stamfordbridge, becomes king of the Isle of Man.

William goes to Normandy during Lent, taking with him "in honourable attendance," says Orderic, but really as hostages, Edgar Atheling, Stigand the archbishop, the earls Edwin, Morcar, and Waltheof, "and many other good men of England.”

"And bishop Odo and William the earl remained here behind, and they built castles wide through the land, and poor people oppressed; and ever after it greatly grew in evil.”

Eustace of Boulogne, invited by the Kentish men, attacks Dover, but without success.

Edric the Forester makes a league with the Welsh, with whom he attacks Hereford, "where he did the castlemen [the Norman garrison] much evil."

Edgar Atheling, in the summer, flees to Scotland with his mother and sisters, accompanied by Merlesuain "and many good men."

William returns to England. He

seizes the lands of many of the English nobles, divides them among his followers, and lays heavy taxes on the people.

William founds an abbey, on the field of Hastings, dedicated to St. Martin, "in order that glory and praise might be offered up there to God for his victory, and that offices for the souls of the dead might there be perpetually performed." It is known in history as Battle Abbey".

Baldwin, a Norman, advances into Powys, and builds a castle where now stands Montgomery.

A.D. 1068.

The people of Exeter cut off a party of Norman sailors.

William marches against them, and "through the treachery of the thanes," reduces the city after a siege of 18 days. Githa, Harold's mother, who had taken refuge there, flees to Steepholm, "and the wives of many good men with her," and thence retires to Flanders.

Copsi, a Saxon who had taken office in Northumberland, is killed by the people five weeks after, March 12.

Cospatric, earl of Northumberland, and the people of the north take arms. Edgar Atheling comes to them from Scotland, and is received by them at York.

William's queen arrives in England; she is crowned by Archbishop Aldred on Whit-Sunday, May 11.

William advances to the north, builds forts at Nottingham and Lincoln, and bestows the earldom of Northumberland on Robert Comin, a Norman.

Harold's sons land in Somerset

sessions in Hereford and Salop, of which it was attempted to deprive him.

"It appears from the Domesday Book that Merlesuain had great estates in Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, as well as in York and Lincoln. He seems to have been sheriff of one of these latter counties, and he had been very active in raising forces to strengthen Harold's army when it marched for Hastings.

b It was not formally consecrated until Feb. 11, 1094, seven years after the death of William.

The effects of this siege are probably to be traced in the mention in the Domesday Book, that the city then contained but 411 houses, while it had 463 in the time of King Edward.

d He had been vicegerent to Tostig, and had remained faithful to the Normans.

Cospatric was of the royal race, being grandson of Uhtred and Elgiva, daughter of Ethel

red II.

shire, plunder Bristol, and kill Ednoth, the stallere. They then ravage Wales, about Midsummer, but are defeated, and obliged to retire to Ireland.

On William's approach, Edgar Atheling again retires to Scotland.

William builds two castles at York; "but St. Peter's minster he made a profanation, and all other places also he despoiled and trampled on."

Malcolm of Scotland makes peace with William, and does homage to him for Cumberland.

September, with 240 ships; they are joined by Edgar Atheling, Merlesuain, Cospatric, and others, when they take York, put the garrison of 3,000 men to the swords, and demolish the castles. "But ere the shipmen arrived the Frenchmen had burnt the city, and also the holy minster of St. Peter had they plundered, and entirely destroyed with fire."

William arrives, when the allies retire to their ships, which remain in the Humber the whole winter.

William passes the winter in the

A.D. 1069.

Comin is massacred at Durham, "and 900 Frenchmen with him," January 29.

Edgar Atheling prepares for another attempt on the north.

Aldred, archbishop of York, dies, Sept. 11.

The sons of Sweyn, king of Denmark, arrive in the Humber, early in

A.D. 1070.

fields of the whole district to be laid waste; the fruits and grain to be destroyed by fire or by water.... thus the resources of a once flourishing province were cut off, by fire, slaughter, and devastation; the ground for more than sixty miles, totally uncultivated and unproductive, remains bare to the present day "

h

Aegelric, the former bishop of Durham1, is betrayed into William's hands, and confined at Westminster.

RYWALLON, one of the princes of North Wales *, is killed.

Wales was nominally subject to the English crown at the time of the arrival of the Normans, and although William was too much occupied in other parts to enforce, except on one occasion, the claim of feudal superiority, it was only reserved for a more fitting season. As early indeed as 1067, one Baldwin built a castle, where now stands Montgomery, within the acknowledged border of Powys, and in 1069 and 1070 other adventurers seized on, and fortified, posts on the

f Ednoth had held this post under Harold, but had taken service with William. The Normaus appear to have divided the office into two, calling the steward the Dispensator (whence the family name Despenser), and the military man the Constable or Master of the Horse.

8 One of the few who escaped was Gilbert of Gand; he was the refounder of Bardney Abbey, in Lincolnshire, and possessed manors in that and in thirteen other counties.

Such is the substance of the account of William of Malmesbury, in his "History of the Kings," which is usually considered to have been written about 1135, or nearly 60 years after the event, and it is fully borne out by numerous entries in the Domesday Book. The lands of the Saxon leaders

In

coast of Dyved, or Pembroke. this latter year, civil dissension opened the road to other parts of the country; the purchased aid of a few Norman horsemen enabled Caradoc, lord of Morganwg (Glamorgan), to seize the principality of South Wales; but his treacherous allies soon returned as plunderers, and next as conquerors and permanent settlers. Early in the reign of William II. they joined another rebellious lord of Glamorgan, killed Rhys ap Tudor, the lineal descendant of Howel Dda, and partitioned his territories ".

This success was followed by Wil