established the influence of England abroad. He proposed to found a third university (Durham'), substituted the English language for French or Latin in official proceedings wherever practicable, abstained, in general, from interference with the ordinary course of the laws, and, except in the case of his Irish campaign, was perhaps as little stained with blood as any private man who ever forced his way to a throne". The era of the Commonwealth was marked by the appearance of many valuable works, hardly to be expected in a time of such confusion. "All the professors of true religion and good literature," says Bishop Kennett, in his Life of Somner, the antiquary, 66 were silenced and oppressed. And yet Providence so ordered, that the loyal suffering party did all that was then done for the improvement of letters and the honour of the nation. Those that intruded into the places of power and profit, did nothing but defile the press with lying news and fast-sermons; while the poor ejected Churchmen did works of which the world was not

worthy. I appeal to the Monasticon, Decem Scriptores, the Polyglot Bible, and the Saxon Dictionary;" to which the Annals of the Old Testament, and other productions of the learned Usher*, might have been added; the actual foundation of the chief learned society of England also dates from the same unpromising period. The fame of Selden as an author was gained before the civil war broke out; and perhaps the only really great literary name on the side of the Commonwealth is that of John Milton, and he is merely spoken of by Whitelock, as 66 one Mr. Milton, a blind man," who wrote Latin; so little did his own party appreciate his genius.

The royal arms were systematically defaced during the period of the Commonwealth, and the States' Arms substituted, being, after the reduction of Scotland, the cross of St. George first and fourth; the saltire of St. Andrew second, and that of St. Patrick third; the Cromwells placed their arms (a lion rampant gardant argent) on an escutcheon surtout, sable.

This had been first proposed about May, 1650, when a representation had been made to the parliament, desiring "that the college and houses of the dean and chapter, being now empty and in decay, may be employed for erecting a college, school, or academy, for the benefit of the northern counties, which are so far from the Universities.' The college was founded by letters patent, dated May 15, 1657, and was endowed with lands of the value of £900 a-year; it was empowered to grant degrees, and was to have a press. It was to consist of a provost and twelve fellows; Philip Hunton, rector of Sedgefield, being named the first provost. The other Universities, however, petitioned against the project, and it was abandoned.

"He was not a man of blood," says Lord Clarendon, "and totally declined Machiavel's method, which prescribes upon any alteration of government, as a thing absolutely necessary, to cut off all the heads of those, and extirpate their families, who are friends to the old one. It was confidently reported, that, in the council of officers, it was more than once proposed, that there might be a general massacre of all the royal party, as the only expedient to secure the government, but that Cromwell would never consent to it; it may be, out of too much contempt of his enemies."

James Usher, the great advocate of what has been invidiously termed "moderate episcopacy," was born in Dublin, Jan. 4, 1580, and he became

one of the earliest students of Trinity College, in that city. He distinguished himself in the Romish controversy, and gaining thus the favour of James I., he was in 1620 appointed to the see of Meath, whence he was in 1625 translated to the archiepiscopate of Armagh. Though a decided Calvinist in doctrine, Usher concurred in the adoption of the English Articles by the Irish Church (see A.D. 1635). He came to England in 1640, and the rebellion in the next year preventing his return to Ireland, he repaired to the king at Oxford, and, as a means of subsistence, was allowed to hold the see of Carlisle in commendam. He was greatly esteemed by the king, and was expressly sum moned to assist him with his advice at the Treaty of Newport. Archbishop Usher produced many laborious works, written amid trouble and danger, and his learning and his virtues commanded the respect of many who were the avowed enemies of his order. Thus he was allowed to hold the

preachership of Lincoln's Inn after the bishops' lands had been sold, and Cromwell listened to his earnest remonstrances in favour of the despoiled clergy, who owed some alleviation of their sufferings to him. Usher found a home in the house of the countess dowager of Peterborough for several years, and he died under her roof at Reigate, March 21, 1656. His remains were honoured with a public funeral, to the cost of which Cromwell contributed £200 by letter of privy seal, April 2, 1656.

to use the Common Prayer, and laymen, though ever in dread from spies, who received all the appointed ministrations of the Church"; some among them sought and obtained ordination from the sequestered bishops; and, as late as the end of the year 1655, the service of the Church was openly performed in at least one church in London (St. Gregory by St. Paul's), but after Christmas-day of that year this ceased. Dr. Wild on that day, as Evelyn says, "preached the funeral sermon of preaching," and "the Church was reduced to a chamber and a conventicle, so sharp was the persecution."

Still there were, as Evelyn informs us, occasional "meetings of zealous Christians, who were generally much more devout and religious than in our greatest prosperity." Such meetings were usually held in private houses, and one such at least, on Christmas-day, 1657, was broken in upon by the soldiery. Evelyn, who was one of the congregation, thus describes the scene:

"Dec. 25.-I went to London with my wife, to celebrate Christmas-day: Mr. Gunning preaching in Exeter chapel, on Micah vii. 2. Sermon ended, as he was giving us the holy sacrament, the chapel was surrounded with soldiers, and all the communicants and assembly surprised and kept prisoners by them, some in the house, others carried away. It fell to my share to be confined to a room in the

house, where yet I was permitted to dine with the master of it, and the countess of Dorset, Lady Hatton, and some others of quality who invited me. In the afternoon came Colonel Whaly, Goffe, and others, from Whitehall, to examine us one by

one; some they committed to the marshal, some to prison. When I came before them, they took my name and abode, examined me why, contrary to an ordinance made that none should any longer observe the superstitious time of the Nativity (so esteemed by them), I durst offend; and particularly be at common prayers, which they told me was

"Some instances of this may be given, extracted from "Archæologia Cantiana," Vol. v. They are selected from entries in the family Bible of Richard Fogge, esq., of Danes Court, in Tilmanstone, a Kentish squire who suffered from the parliamentary sequestrators. (See p. 389.)

March 31, 1645. Jane [his third daughter] christened the following day after the new fashion according to the Directory, my sister Jane Darell and my cousin Mary Bolton godmothers, and Mr. Thomas Monyns godfather, only for a show. She was christened by Nicholas Billingsley, rector of Tilmanstone, in the chamber over kitchen. My mother was that day buried after the new fashion by Mr. Billingsley, who then preached.

"Oct. 3, 1647. Richard (his third son] christened 14th Oct. following, by Mr. Thomas Russel, a great Cavalier, with the Book of Common Prayer, and signed with the cross. N.B. He was

christened in chamber over kitchen.

"March 1, 1649. Christopher christened in above chamber by young Mr. Harrington. "20 June, 1650. William baptized in above chamber by Parson Hart of Goodneston.

"Oct. 6, 1654. Cecily baptized in the old way cum signo crucis by Mr. Henry Gayn, school

master of Northborne.

"28 June, 1649. My sister Anne Fogge was married to Mr. Christopher Boys, son to Mr. Ed

but the mass in English, and particularly pray for Charles 'Stuart, for which we had no Scripture. I told them we did not pray for Charles Stuart, but for all Christian kings, princes and governors. They replied, in so doing we prayed for the king of Spain too, who was their enemy, and a papist; with other ening; and finding no colour to detain me, they frivolous and ensnaring questions, and much threatdismissed me with much pity of my ignorance. These were men of high flight, and above ordinances, and spake spiteful things of our Lord's Nativity. As we went up to receive the sacrament, the miscreants held their muskets against us, as if they would have shot us at the altar, but yet suffered us to finish the office of communion, as perhaps not having instruction what to do in case they found us in that action. So I got home late the next day, blessed be God."

The rule of Puritanism was now happily very near its end. Cromwell's weak successor was soon displaced, and a military despotism was seen approaching, accompanied by all the fanatical licence of the Levellers, Anabaptists, Fifth Monarchymen and a thousand other sectaries. Alarmed at this, the Presbyterian preachers chose to forget that their seditious sermons had been the original cause of very much of the mischief, and began to look, for their own safety, to the restoration of the monarchy. The royalists thus breathed again, and soon presented so bold a front, that Monk, who evidently meditated a dictatorship, saw he should best consult his. own advancement by forwarding their views. Being at the head of an overwhelming force, he was able to do this without bloodshed, and thus, though neither a great nor a good man, he was the providential instrument of overthrowing a tyranny, both civil and religious, more grievous than any to which this country had ever before been subjected-the rule of those who "turn religion into rebellion."

ward Boys, of Uffington, in the parish of Goodnestone. Mr. Hart married them the old way, with the Book of Common Prayer, in Tilmanstone church."

Christmas-day appears to have been particularly distasteful to the Puritans. They tried to convert it into a fast, and Calamy, preaching before the House of Lords in 1645, declared that he knew not which was the greatest, the superstition or the profanity of its observance. But they could not bring even the London citizens to their opinion, and as late as 1656, one Parker, a member of Cromwell's second parliament, complained of their shutting their shops "on this foolish day," quite as carefully as on the Sabbath. The parliament was then sitting on Christmas-day, as was their practice, and he spoke of introducing a bill to compel the people to keep their shops open; but nothing appears to have been done in the matter.

Whitelock says that he advised Cromwell not to take this step, "as that which was contrary to the liberty of conscience, so much owned and pleaded for by him and his friends;" but the parliamentary ordinance prohibiting the observance of Christmas being relied on by the other party, "the Protector gave way to it, and those meetings were suppressed by the soldiers."

* See p. 388.

See the dying declaration of Axtell, p. 461.

The parliament takes the style of "Parliamentum Reipublicæ Anglia," or "The Parliament of the Commonwealth of England," and forbids any other style to be used.

"The parliament," says Whitelock, "took upon them and exercised all manner of jurisdiction, and sentenced persons secundum arbitrium, which was disliked by many lawyers of the House (whereof I was one), and we shewed them the illegality and breach of liberty in those arbitrary proceedings, and advised them to refer such matters to the legal proceedings in ordinary courts of justice; but the dominion and power was sweet to some of them, and they were very unwilling to part with it."

Blake, being refused permission to attack Prince Rupert in the Tagus, makes reprisals on the Portuguese', March.

Montrose crosses into Caithness, but is defeated in Corbiesdale, April 27, captured shortly after, and brought before the parliament, May 20. He is hanged at Edinburgh, with many circumstances of insult and cruelty, May 21.

Ascham, the envoy to Spain, is assassinated at Madrid', May 27.

Charles II. arrives in Scotland, June 16, the expectation of which had occasioned the recall of Cromwell from Ireland, where Ireton was left as deputy. The parliament resolve to anticipate

The Portuguese lost many rich ships, and were forced to recompense damages done to English merchants and to make important commercial concessions, to avoid a war. Prince Rupert repaired to Spain, where he was attacked in the road of Malaga by Blake. He escaped with three ships, cruised about for a while longer, visiting the West Indies, and, returning in 1652, sold his two remaining vessels to France; his brother Prince Maurice perished at sea in the other.

This murder was committed by some of the servants of Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, who was then in Spain as an envoy of the king, and who in his letters avows his wish that "all the rebels' envoys may have their throats cut.

He arrived in London, May 31, was received with much pomp, and on June 11 gave an account to the House of his Irish campaign.

A committee, of which Whitelock was one, was appointed to wait on Fairfax, and endeavour to remove his scruples; "and none of the committee," says, were so earnest to persuade the general to continue his commission as Cromwell and the soldiers; yet there was cause enough to believe they did not over much desire it.'

Sometimes called Lord Newark. He had

lead the invading army, and lays down his commission, June 25. Cromwell is in consequence appointed lord-general, June 26, and leaves London for the field, June 29.

Cromwell crosses the Tweed, July 16, and advances to Edinburgh, which is strongly fortified.

The Scots forbid the king to appear in their camp, and extort from him a declaration of his assent to the Covenant, Aug. 16.

The English royalists form associations, but are betrayed, and many officers and gentlemen are executed.

Cromwell, finding his army suffering from sickness, prepares to retreat. David Leslie is compelled, against his own judgment, to attack him at Dunbar, Sept. 3, when the Scots are totally defeated". Edinburgh at once surrenders, but the castle holds out.

The princess Elizabeth dies a prisoner at Carisbrooke Castle, Sept. 8.

The king endeavours to escape from the Covenanters, in order to repair to the Highlands, Sept. 27. He is brought back, almost as a prisoner, to Perth', Oct. 6.

All law-books ordered to be translated into English, all legal documents to be in the same tongue, and written in an ordinary legible hand; a committee also appointed to inquire into the salaries, fees, and unnecessary delays of the law, Oct. 25.

The royalists attempt a rising in Norfolk, but are defeated", in November.

served at Marston Moor, and defeated Montrose at Philiphaugh. See A.D. 1645.

y Near 4,000 of the Scots were killed, with very slight loss to the English, and 10,000 prisoners taken, half of whom were at once released, and the rest sent into England. Many of these were confined in Durham Cathedral, where they tore down the banners taken at Flodden-field, and defaced the tomb of Lord Neville, who had commanded the English army at Neville's Cross, in 1346. Presbyterians considered this as their own defeat, and refused to take part in the thanksgiving that was ordered by the Council of State.

The

According to Whitelock, on the authority of letters received by the Council of State, "the Scotch army was now full of factions: one are those whom the Scotch laboured to remove out of the army as 'sectaries ;' another faction is the 'old malignants,' who would be revenged for the death of Montrose and other malignants; others are against the kirk; others are the new malignants.'

The attempt was on a very small scale, but a high court of justice was erected for the trial of prisoners, when, out of twenty-four who were tried, twenty were executed.