many others, were the victims. Even in matters which did not belong to the great political or religious questions of his reign, his government was harsh, and numerous severe laws were enacted, and rigorously executed. He ruled more absolutely than any English king had done before him; and such was the servility of his parliaments that they allowed his proclamations in some cases to have the force of laws; not only granted him, by the plunder of the Church, an amount of wealth which no former king had possessed, but twice cancelled his debts; enforced all his changing opinions by the penalties of treason; and lastly, after three times settling the succession as he was pleased to require, they enabled him to dispose of it by will, as if the monarchy had been his pri

vate estate.

The last year of Henry's life was marked by the fall of the duke of Norfolk', who had long been a main supporter of the Romish doctrines; Seymour, Cranmer, and others of the reformers, were appointed by his will the guardians of his son, and the king died shortly after, Jan. 28, 1547. He was buried at Windsor, Feb. 16, according to the Roman ritual, and a very gorgeous tomb was commenced to his memory; but it was never completed, and was at length plundered,

they urged against him, and the whole tenor of his life leads us to hope that it is greatly exaggerated, if not wholly untrue.

• The chronicler Holinshed says that 72,000 persons were executed in the course of his reign; a number not incredible, when it is considered that new treasons and felonies were created by almost every parliament, and that sparing life when convicted was seldom thought of, in the Tudor times.

Thomas Howard, born in 1473, was the son of the earl of Surrey who gained the victory of Flod

Arms of Howard, duke of Norfolk.

den; he was present there, and distinguished himself on many other occasions in Scotland, France, and Ireland. He became duke of Norfolk in 1524, took a prominent part in public business, and was considered the head of the Romish party in Eng

and afterwards destroyed during the civil war in the time of Charles I.

Henry contracted the unusual number of six marriages, all except the last fatal to his partners. His first union, with his sister-in-law, Katherine of Aragon, though clearly unlawful in its nature, was sanctioned by the authority of the pope, and afforded him, from the virtues of the unhappy lady, the only calm and peaceful years that he enjoyed in the married state. Scruples as to its legality were suggested, which were converted into certainty by the attractions of Anne Boleyn, an attendant of Katherine, who became queen only to find a dishonoured grave a few months after the death of her injured mistress. Henry next married Jane Seymour, who shortly died in child-bed; a political union was then entered into with Anne of Cleves, and shortly after unceremoniously dissolved, its chief result being the ruin of its contriver, Thomas Cromwell. His fifth marriage was with Katherine Howard, who in less than two years was brought to the block; and in eighteen months more Henry espoused a widow lady, Katherine Parr, who though endangered by her favour for the doctrines of the Reformation, had the fortune to survive him.

Beside children who died young, Henry had by Katherine of Aragon,

land; he procured the passing of the Act of the Six Articles, and otherwise greatly hindered the Re formation. At last, after many years of high favour, he fell into disgrace with Henry VIII., who seems to have suspected him and his son of aspiring to the crown, was attainted, and ordered for execution, but the king dying at that very period, the new government contented themselves with keeping him a prisoner during the whole of the reign of Edward VI. He was released by Mary, and his attainder reversed, but he took little further part in public affairs beyond presiding at the trial of the duke of Northumberland; he died July 18, 1554 He married, first, the princess Anne, daughter of Edward IV., who died in 1512, and, secondly, Elizabeth, daughter of Edward, duke of Buckingham.

Henry, earl of Surrey, one of our early poets, was the son of the duke, and was born in 1516; he was the companion and brother-in-law of the duke of Richmond, the king's natural son; travelled abroad, and distinguished himself in arms, in Scotland and France. He was for awhile governor of Boulogne, but being ignominiously removed, he gave vent to his displeasure in words which were carried to the king; he was accused, like his father, of treason, condemned, and executed, Jan. 21, 1547. One of his sons was Thomas, duke of Norfolk, beheaded in 1572.

The number is disputed; some writers mention two, others four.

Henry had also a natural son, who was born about 1517, and was named Henry; was created earl of Nottingham, duke of Richmond and Somerset, and appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Sir William Skeffington being his deputy. He married Mary a daughter of the duke of Norfolk, but died without issue in his 20th

The royal arms continued the same as in the preceding reigns, but are generally within the gartar and crowned. The supporters, however, vary; the more ordinary are the golden lion and red dragon; but the red dragon also occurs as the dexter supporter, while for the sinister ones, a white bull, a white greyhound, and a white cock are mentioned.

The only known badge of Henry is

Arms of Henry VIII.

Badges of Katherine of Aragon.

but

the white greyhound, courant; those of his wives are the pomegranate, the pomegranate and rose, and the sheaf of arrows of Katherine of Aragon; the crowned falcon and

and phoenix of Jane Seymour; and the maiden's head and rose of Katherine Parr.

As the prominent actor in the breach between England and the Church of Rome, the character of Henry has ordinarily been estimated rather according to the feeling of writers concerning that great change, than by any other standard. His actions, however, shew that his temper was most impetuous, that he was vain of his learning, jealous of his power, and alternately avaricious and prodigal; it is also evident that these defects

were fostered by interested advisers, who thus served their own ends, but exhibited their king as a capricious tyrant, who threw off the yoke of Rome only to be as absolute himself. His wealth caused his alliance to be so sedulously courted by foreign princes that he was led to believe himself the arbiter of Europe, yet he ought to have learnt his mistake, on seeing his various allies repeatedly desert him without ceremony whenever they had an opportunity of making peace without him; and while they did adhere to him they usually man

aged to make him pay far more than his due proportion of the costs of their joint enterprises.

In his private character, Henry must be regarded with abhorrence. A hideous boast is attributed to him that "he never spared a woman in his lust, or a man in his anger," and his conduct justifies the remark. Those who had served him but "too well" (as Wolsey and Cromwell") were abandoned to destruction when no longer useful; the pious and faithful Katherine suffered a living martyrdom; his five other wives fared little better; and his daughters were made to feel that their lives and fortunes depended on his absolute will. Thus destitute alike of gratitude and natural feeling, it is not wonderful to find him also without the honesty to pay his debts, or the honour to adhere to his public engagements. Yet, with all his vices and crimes, he was the instrument of good to posterity which is not always appreciated as it ought to be; for his hand overthrew the power which had long denied to England a Bible and Servicebook in the common tongue, and had endeavoured to render the word of God of none effect by its traditions.

Thomas Cromwell, the son of a blacksmith at Putney, was born about 1490. He was employed in the English factory at Antwerp, was afterwards engaged in the service of Henry VIII., but at length became a soldier, and was present at the sack of Rome in 1527. He soon after returned to England, entered the family of Cardinal Wolsey, was much esteemed by him, and, as the redeeming feature in a bad character, had the honesty and courage to adhere to him when fallen. He is said to have thus recommended himself to the favour of the king, who bestowed many lucrative offices on him, and received in return all the services that a bold, artful, and utterly unscrupulous agent could render, whether in divorcing or murdering his queens, plundering the Church, or erecting his own varying opinions as standards of doctrine. In 1536 he was created Lord Cromwell, and in 1539 carl of Essex, but he soon after lost the royal favour, was committed to prison, attainted without a hearing, after a fashion which he had often employed against his opponents, and beheaded July 28, 1540, in spite of supplications of the most pitiable nature. He concludes one letter thus:

"Written at the Tower this Wednesday, the last of June, with the heavy heart and trembling hand of your Highness' most heavy and most miserable prisoner, and poor slave, Thomas Cromwell,

"Most gracious prince, I cry for mercy, mercy, mercy.

"

i His parliaments relieved him from the first in 1529 and 1544, and he was alternately the ally and the enemy of both Charles V. and Francis 1.

His regnal years are dated from this day. The king declares that this had been done "without any cause reasonable or lawful, by the undue means of certain of the learned Council of our late father, contrary to the law, reason and good conscience, to the manifest charge and peril

of the soul of our late father;" and the young king adds that he is informed "that the sums contained in those recognizances cannot be levied without the evident peril of our late father's soul, which we would for no earthly riches see nor suffer."

It was found upon enquiry that a much larger sum than the young king was inclined to part with would be necessary to afford compensation. He contented himself therefore with remitting any instalments that remained unpaid of fines imposed (many of them were in the form of yearly payments), and punishing the chief delinquents as traitors; their subordinates escaped with imprisonment and the pillory.

n Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, and lord chancellor, strenuously opposed the marriage, but without effect.

They were charged with a design to "hold, guide and govern the king and his council," to subjugate the nobility, and to destroy all who resisted. The indictments state that, when the late king lay on his death-bed, Empson retained in Northamp tonshire John Stalworth, Robert Warwick and others, by a fee of one penny each, and they came to London, where Dudley by letters to Sir Edward Sutton and others, on the 22nd of April assembled a great force of men and armed power," to carry their purposes into effect. Dudley was tried at London, July 18, and Empson at Northampton, Oct. 1. It seems to have been intended to spare their lives, but such vehement complaints were made against them during the royal progress next year, that they were abandoned to their fate, and were executed together on Tower-hill, Aug. 18, 1510. An act was passed to prevent such vexatious suits as they had prosecuted; it provided that all suits on penal statutes should be commenced within three years after the time of the alleged offence, [1 Hen. VIII. c. 4].

particular notice of the king by Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester, and soon becomes a favourite with him.

The statutes against costly apparel modified, [1 Hen. VIII. c. 14].

Andrew Barton, the Scottish privateers, is killed, and his ships (the Lion and Jenny Perwin) captured by Sir Edward Howard', the admiral, and his brother, Sir Thomas.

A.D. 1511.

Henry forms a league with Ferdinand of Spain, for the purpose of attacking France, Nov. 10.

St. John's College, Cambridge, founded in pursuance of the will of Margaret, countess of Richmond".

A.D. 1512.

The parliament meets, Feb. 4. Physicians and surgeons forbidden to practise unless licensed by the bishop of the diocese, [3 Hen. VIII. c.11].

Dudley's attainder reversed', [c. 19]. Fortifications ordered to be erected on the coast between Plymouth and the Land's End, [4 Hen. VIII. c. 2"]. Benefit of clergy taken from murderers and felons, [4 Hen. VIII. sess. 2, c. 2].

James of Scotland forms a league with France, May 22.

An English force sent under the marquis of Dorset to Spain. It remains inactive on the borders of

Richard Fox was born at Grantham, and was educated at both Universities. He was early attached to the court, and was employed by Henry VII on several important embassies, and particularly in the negotiations for the marriage of the princess Margaret with James IV. of Scotland. In 1487, being then the king's secretary, he was made bishop of Exeter, and afterwards held the sees of Bath and Wells, Durham and Winchester. Beside founding Corpus Christi College, Oxford, Bishop Fox endowed several grammar schools, (particularly one in his native town,) and exhibited great liberality in adorning his cathedral of Winchester, which see he held for twenty-seven years. He died Sept. 14, 1528, and was buried in his church, where his elegant chantry still attracts attention equally with those of Wykeham, Beaufort, and Wayneflete. 4 See p. 278.

The sons of the earl of Surrey, and grandsons of the duke of Norfolk, who was killed at Bosworth. This, like Jesus College, was the conversion of an existing establishment to collegiate purposes.

His son John became duke of Northumberland in the next reign.

"This statute directs the justices of peace to survey Cornwall, and compel the inhabitants to labour in the erection of "bulwarks" without pay, the Land and materials being provided in like manner without remuneration.

The largest ship of each fleet (the Cordelier

France from June to December, waiting for the Spaniards, and then returns home greatly weakened by sickness.

Sir Edward Howard ravages the French coast, and defeats the French fleet near Brest, Aug. 10.

The Trinity House established for the encouragement of navigation. A.D. 1513.

A fresh league is formed against France between the emperor (Maximilian), the pope (Leo X.) and the kings of England and Spain, April 5.

Sir Edward Howard is killed in an attempt to destroy the French fleet', near Brest, April 25.

The earl of Suffolk is beheaded, after seven years' imprisonment", April 30. The French and the English coasts are ravaged by the rival fleets.

Henry passes overto France, June 30; he besieges and captures Terouenne, Aug. 22.

The Scots invade England, but are defeated with great slaughter at Flodden, (near Wooller,) in Northumberland, Sept. 9, by the earl of Surrey ©.

Tournay is invested and speedily captured (Sept. 24), when Henry holds his court there.

Henry returns to England, Nov. 24.
A.D. 1514.

The French burn Brighton, and ravage the Sussex coast.

and the Regent) being grappled together, were blown up by a French gunner, and almost all on board (1600 men) perished.

y Maximilian served for a daily pay of 100 golden crowns with the English army before Terouenne, wearing the green and white livery of the Tudors.

He was succeeded in his office of admiral by his brother, Sir Thomas, afterwards duke of Norfolk.

This execution after so long a delay is usually regarded as in revenge for his brother Richard serving in the French army.

b A few days before, (Aug. 16,) a French army attempting to relieve the town was put to flight so precipitately, that the affair is commonly known as the Battle of the Spurs.

The king was killed, as was his natural son, Alexander, archbishop of St. Andrew's, three other prelates, twenty-five nobles, and four hundred knights and gentlemen. James' body was embalmed at Berwick, and after a considerable time was wrapped in lead and deposited in the monastery at Richmond. It was apparently disinterred at the dissolution of the house, and was lying in a lumber-room in the time of the antiquary Stow.

4 The see was at that time vacant, and as the bishop-elect refused to swear fealty to the conqueror, it was given to the king's almoner, Wolsey, who shortly after received also the bishopric of Lincoln, (Feb. 6, 1514,) and before the end of the year was translated to York.

An act passed for the due administration of justice in the conquered towns of Terouenne and Tournay, [5 Hen. VIII. c. 1].

Peace is concluded with France and Scotland, Aug. 7; Louis XII. agreeing to pay a large sum of money, and also to marry Mary, the king's youngest sister.

The queen-mother of Scotland marries the earl of Angus (Archibald Douglas), and endeavours to procure the regency for him. John, duke of Albany, is invited from France by the parliament, and received as governor.

66

The miserable condition of Ireland, and the merely nominal nature of the English rule there in the time of Henry VIII., are well shewn in a document preserved in the Public Record Office, and ascribed to the year 15158. The writer enumerates more than sixty "chief captains" of the king's “Irish enemies," and more than half as many great captains of the English noble folk," some being distinguished as the English great rebels," and others as "captains that obey not the king's law." He names the districts that have neither justice nor sheriff, "wherein all the English folk are of Irish habit, of Irish language, and of Irish condition, except in the cities and the walled towns;" and states that, even in the

• They were married at Abbeville, Oct. 9. The king died three months after, and his widow soon married Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. He was the nephew of Richmond's standard-bearer at Bosworth, and had been brought up in the court as the companion of Prince Henry, where he became a great favourite, from his handsome person and his skill in martial exercises. He was created Lord Lisle by Henry VIII., went with him on his expedition to France, and was soon after raised to a dukedom. He aspired in vain to the hand of Margaret of Savoy, and his marriage with the French queen was readily forgiven; he had great grants of abbey lands, and he continued in favour with the king his whole life. He made several incursions in France, from Calais, on one occasion nearly reaching Paris; greatly exerted himself in putting down the insurrections in England, and was the first to enter Boulogne when captured by the king. Suffolk died shortly after, Aug. 24, 1545, and was buried at Henry's charge at Windsor. He was four times married, his royal bride being his third partner; by her he left two sons, who both died in youth, and two daughters. By one of them, Lady Jane Grey was his granddaughter.

The son of Alexander, duke of Albany, brother of James III.; he had great estates in France, and

English pale, (the eastern half of the counties of Louth, Meath, Dublin, Kildare, and Wexford", the western half of each being a march land, more disorderly, if possible, than the more distant districts,) "the common people, for the more part, be of Irish birth, of | Irish habit, and of Irish language."

The Irish chief captains, the writer states, called themselves, "some kings, some king's peers, some princes, some dukes, some archdukes." Each made peace and war for himself, and held his place by the sword, having imperial jurisdiction within his country, and obeyed no person, English or Irish; their districts were some as large as a shire, some less, but the same state of things prevailed in them

had gained much reputation as a military commander in the French wars in Italy. He arrived in Scotland May 18, 1515, but many conspiracies and rebellions were formed against him, and after several visits to France, he finally withdrew in 1524.

It is printed in the State Papers of the reign of Henry VIII., Part III. p. 1. Many of its statements are borne out by acts of the English Parliament, particularly 13 Hen. VIII. c. 3, and 25 Hen. VIII. c. 15; and others are authenticated by the Ordinances for the Government of Ireland, issued in 1534, to be found in the same work, p. 207. Another document of somewhat later date (between 1517 and 1530) exists in the Public Record Office, entitled "Remembrances for Ireland, which among other things foreshadows a change that has only of late been effected, namely, the reducing the number of the prelates to two archbishops and nine or ten bishops. It also recommends that no absenteeism should be allowed, and that war on the natives unless with the license of the king's deputy should be punished as treason.

h The sea-coast of Wexford had been reconquered by Mac Morough, an Irish chief, who received "tribute" from the royal exchequer at least as late

as 1537.