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hear nothing of Alfred. But we may be sure that his chief task was to make such improvement as was possible in the wretched state of demoralization which the Danish invaders had left behind them in his own Wessex. 'Great trouble and vexation had he with his folk, who would take little or no pains for the common need of the realm. Yet, all alone, stood he, by God's help, at the helm of the kingdom; even as a master helmsman setteth him (though his sailors be weary and idle, almost all) to bring his ship safe unto the haven. Even so suffered he in himself no fainting nor wavering amid the many eddies and tide-ways [fluctivagos] of this world. His Bishops, his Aldermen . . . and his Sheriffs [præpositos] (to whom, after God and the King, the sway of the realm seemeth meetest to be entrusted), did he bend to his will, and bind to the common weal, by gentle teaching, by kind attention [adulando], by exhortation, by command, and, in the last resort, by sharp punishment, and by showing in every way his loathing of their vulgar folly and obstinacy." Full oft was he vexed to the heart with the Princes and the Captains [pentecontarchos], and the whole perverse generation, because they would not follow out the ends on which he was bent.' 'In all the whole realm the poor, save him alone, had few or none to champion them. For all the high and mighty of the land gave thought rather to the things of this world than to the things of God: yea, more greedy was each one among them. of his own worldly gain than for the common weal.... Often perversely did they strive together in the very session of his judges and Aldermen, insomuch that scarcely would one among them allow the justice of the award of the magistrates, and . . . all appealed to the King's own judgment. But were any conscious of unright in his cause, he, though by law bound to go before the King, yet with his own consent never would he go. . . For well he knew that in the King's presence no whit of his wrong-doing could be pleaded for a moment: nor marvel was it, for the King, in awarding sentence as in all beside, was a most keen searcher out of truth. Himself did he inquire into almost all the judgments given... throughout all his realms . . . and, did he perceive iniquity 1 Simeon of Durham, § 53.

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therein, he called unto him the judges, and asked them mildly why they had judged thus wrongfully, whether through ignorance or malevolence, whether for love or fear of any, or through hatred, or from greed of money.

§ 5. And, at length, if they acknowledged that they had given these judgments because they knew no better, then did he discreetly and temperately reprove their ignorance and folly after this sort: "Wonder, truly, is it to me of your rashness, that whereas, by God's grace and mine, ye hold the state and office of the wise, ye forget to study and work wisdom. Either then do ye at once forego the . . . offices ye hold, or strive ye more earnestly to study the lessons of wisdom. Such is my behest."

§ 6. At these words would the judges and officers tremble and strive to give all thought to the study of justice; so that, wondrous to tell, almost all his Aldermen, Sheriffs and Thanes, though unlearned from their cradles, set to work at letters with a will; choosing the rather to be at the pains to learn unwonted lessons than to resign their functions. But if any, from age or slowness of wit, could make no speed in the liberal studies, then bade he his son, if he had one, or a kinsman, or, if none else might be had, his own freedman or thrall... to recite Saxon books before him day and night, whensoever leisure served. And with deep sighs did they lament from their inmost heart that in their youth they had taken no heed to such studies.'

§ 7. This vivid sketch is from Asser's eloquent summing up of his life of Alfred; and it must be specially applicable to these early years of his reign. These years, too, must have seen the beginnings of those many-sided developments which marked his tenure of the throne beyond that of any monarch before or after. Not only did he, amid the trammels of this present world . . and his own infirmities' thus diligently perform his regal duties, but he also 'practised constantly hunting of every kind, himself training his falconers and dog-keepers; himself did he teach his workmen in gold and silver and all cunning work beside, building houses stately and good beyond all his forefathers. teach his folk to recite Saxon books, and

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Himself did he above all did he

learn by heart Saxon songs, and made others learn them; nor for his own part did he ever cease from studying most diligently and with all his power. Daily did he attend the Mass and other offices of religion: instant was he in psalmsinging and in prayer at the Hours, both of day and night. To the churches also would he go in the night time, secretly and unbeknown to his Court-folk. Unto Holy Scripture was he ever ready to hearken, and would have his own home-born folk read it unto him. And with outlanders no less would he join in prayer, if reason was; and to strangers from far would he give alms even as to his own folk. Courteous was he of speech, and pleasant to all, and wondrous eager to search into things unknown.'

'Often and often would he repeat to himself by heart these lines [of Boethius]:

'Though ruin on ruin

Be heaped through the world,
Though on by the wild wind
The billows be hurled,
Thou, stablished in quiet,
Thou, happy and strong,
Mayst smile at the tempest
Through all thy life long."

1 Simeon of Durham.

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Great Danish inroad of 876-Siege of Wareham-Capture of ExeterDanish fleet destroyed at Swanage-Alfred the founder of our navy -Danes at Chippenham-Wessex wholly overrun-Alfred unpopular -Danish massacres--Alfred in Athelney-His jewel.

SI.

Β'

UT the working out of this brilliant promise had to wait for better times. All too soon did the first brief breathing-space of Alfred's reign come to an end, in a more fearful struggle than even that which preceded it. The mighty host of the Danes, after leaving Wessex at the end of 871, made their head-quarters for a while in London. The next winter found them encamped on the Humber, the next at Repton, in Derbyshire. The intervening summers were congenially spent in their wonted ravages, and in the third (874) another great reinforcement reached them from overseas under three Kings, and they became invincible." Organized resistance, indeed, seems to have wholly ceased, and they now ventured to divide their forces, the original host invading Scotland, while the new-comers settled themselves at Cambridge.

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§ 2. Yet another year, and the Danes 'thinking it scorn that any part of England should remain to Alfred, or more probably having squeezed their immediate neighbourhood dry and scenting better plunder in his comparatively unexhausted realm, made a sudden dash on Wessex. Stealing away from Cambridge (Florence adds by night'), a forced march enabled them to surprise the strong fortress of Wareham in Dorset. Beset there by Alfred, 'they sware unto

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3 A.S. Chronicle.

him that they would depart from his land.' The oath was made on their holy armlets,' a pledge so sacred that never before would they do so to any nation.' What this 'armlet' (beacg) was is uncertain. We know that, in Iceland, the Norsemen kept a holy ring in their temples by which they swore ; but this would be unavailable abroad. It is possible that the 'holy armlet' was one of those 'bracteates' in use among the Scandinavians of that age, brought from the East, inscribed with the zodiacal signs and with Arabic or shamArabic lettering. For freebooters to have some special oath which alone was regarded as binding remained a practice until quite recent days. Sir Walter Scott mentions it (in 'Waverley') as still current in the eighteenth century.

§ 3. Sacrosanct, however, as was this ceremony, it proved a mere blind, and one only too successful, to put the English off their guard. The very next night 'that perjured host' made a desperate sortie, cut their way through the Saxon leaguer, and, pushing westwards in all haste, rushed the unprepared garrison of Exeter. This proceeding left to a wellmerited hanging the hostages placed in Alfred's hands as security for the treaty, and further led to the destruction by the winds and an English squadron of no fewer than 120 Danish vessels, which tried to effect a landing at Swanage in support of the invasion. It was doubtless by preconcerted arrangement with these expected allies that the host from Cambridge had struck for so remote a place as Wareham.

§ 4. Great as was the immediate importance of this naval triumph, it is of far greater historical moment as marking the very first outset of the flag of England upon the seas. For amongst the many deep debts which we owe to Alfred, the very greatest, perhaps, from a national point of view, is his creation of our navy. And this creation was absolutely his

own.

§ 5. For many a long year the English had ceased to be seafaring folk. Few developments in history are more startling than the effect of their occupation of Britain upon the Saxon pirates. After being for centuries the scourge of Arngrim Jonas, Kerum Islandic.,' i. 7.

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