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whether he, with the rest, would in time get so inured to his surroundings as to accept them with passive acquiescence.

for an elderly woman, was in reality not yet mill-owners. We could not help wondering twenty-five years of age! Early marriage-sixteen being not at all an unusual age-hard work at the mills, especially at those times when, of all others, the woman needs rest and care; an entire absence of sanitary surroundings both in and out of doors-all these tell their bitter tale, and produce this premature look of age, so that a woman of thirty is old; and by forty, when she ought to be in the plenitude of her powers, has become a withered old woman.

True, there are in London deeper depths than any to be found in the manufacturing districts, where men and women but seldom have to work at starvation prices, and where, except in times of 'strike,' or during the ever memorable 'cotton famine,' there is usually a sufficiency of well-paid employment for all. Indeed, those with the largest families are the best off pecuniarily, for immediately the children get old enough, they are sent to the mill as half-timers, and henceforth regularly contribute their quota to the family income. A London workman and his family, gaining an equal amount in wages, would, however, have far different and very much greater possibilities of health and of rational enjoyment. With an atmosphere which offers no inducement for outdoor recreation, and makes gaslight more cheery than daylight, the dwellers in our smoke-laden factory towns are heavily weighted in the race for health; and the pressure of their outward surroundings-those which result from no act of their own, and, so far as regards any power which they may have, are fixed and unchangeable, constitutes a burden beneath whose constant presence all but the very robust in spirit must sink into hopeless apathy, losing even the wish for, or the ambition of ever attaining to, better things.

Thus, with much of material prosperity, the dark side of the shield more often than not comes into view. We remember talking to a mill-owner about a man in his employ who had been brought into hospital with his hand badly injured as the direct result of carelessness produced by intoxication. The man was tipsy when admitted. It turned out that he and his family took home something like six pounds as their weekly earnings, and could do this regularly; and yet, when a daughter died, their employer had to advance the sum necessary for funeral expenses. Time after time he had tried to induce the man to save; but no! a certain amount would be got together, and then the whole of it drawn out and spent on some 'spree.' 'And really,' this mill-owner continued, with a frankness somewhat unusual, 'I hardly see how we can expect things to be otherwise; the gloomy monotony of our workmen's lives is so intense, that an occasional outbreak must be looked for. In fact, it seems to act as a safety-valve, without which the pressure of forces would be so great as to result in an explosion and terrible social disruption. I myself,' he went on to say, 'could not endure life in such a place even with all the ameliorations which wealth can supply, were it not for a run into the country now and then, or a month abroad, either of which alternatives is a splendid way of letting off the steam.'

The speaker himself was a much younger man

Any stranger walking through the streets at a time when the mills loosed,' might well be excused for fancying himself amongst a rude people, their very speech being as an unknown language to him. And yet the horse-play, if a little rough, really means nothing more than does the frolicsomeness of a lot of schoolboys just released from their tasks. We should, however, recommend a very thin-skinned person, or one who stood much upon his dignity, to keep out of the streets at such an hour. You will be certain to hear, unasked, the whole truth about your personal appearance. The cut of your clothes, your every gesture and feature, will be commented upon; the amusing part being that all this is done without the slightest idea or intention of giving offence. To one who will take these people as they are, such frankness is positively refreshing, and a splendid cure for latent conceit, which has small chance of developing amidst so outspoken a people.

The lady superintendent of a hospital in one of our Lancashire towns where the distinctive characteristics of the people come out even more broadly than usual, told us that at first she hardly knew what to make of such a state of things, and was almost afraid to venture out of doors, for she could neither understand the speech of the people nor make herself understood by them. Being a gentlewoman in every sense of the word, and possessed of much tact, with a strong reserve of common-sense, she soon became a great favourite with the rough men and women by whom she was surrounded, but could never get over the sense of amusement at being now and then stopped in the streets by a knot of mill-girls-all perfect strangers to her, and she to them-and told that she had on a very pretty gown and they would like to know where it was made. In London,' she usually had to answer; and would further good-naturedly gratify their curiosity by telling them to take a good look at it, so that they might not forget the way in which it was made. To have felt, or at anyrate shown, annoyance would have been the height of absurdity, as these girls really intended to be complimentary.

There was a story told of two ladies-one an American-who, when walking along one day, heard the comments which were freely passed upon their appearance and attire; some bright buttons which the American lady had on her coat being as a very focus of attraction, and particularly taking the mill-girls' fancy. Foolishly enough, the lady turned round and soundly rated them, with the very unpleasant consequence that she and her companion were followed and hooted at by an ever-increasing crowd of men, women, and children, so that they had at length to take refuge in the police station, which by good fortune chanced to be close at hand. In this case, too, no rudeness had been intended: the girls themselves would have felt pleased for any one to remark upon their clothes, and they could not imagine that for them to do so would be disagreeable to others.

than is usually to be found amongst the race of | Rough as is their outward appearance, and free

though their manners may be, these girls often brawls constitute a very common form of injury: show an amount of tact and innate good-breeding and on Saturday nights more especially-a dread which would not disgrace a high-born dame. time this, when the house-surgeon is sure to be Their real good-heartedness and utter absence of roused once or twice before daybreak-a most all self-seeking are as conspicuous as those more ordinary and, as to its frequency, very puzzling obtrusive and less desirable mannerisms which kind of accident is a broken limb or fractured cause a stranger to shrink from them with some- skull, caused by falling down-stairs when in a thing like dismay. Nor is it only to their own state of intoxication. When we learn that in people that this thoughtful kindness comes out. the majority of these poorer houses the stairs We remember hearing of a newly-made widow are without handrail or any other protection, who obtained a situation in Lancashire, and the mystery is one no longer. Then, too, as came down from London to enter upon it. Her might be expected, terrible machinery accidents previous experiences having been entirely con- are fully represented amongst the cases in hosfined to south-country life, she had not the least pital, so that in one year a doctor sees more outidea of the sort of people amongst whom she of-the-way surgical practice than he might do would be thrown. Feeling very sad in her utter during a lifetime spent in a London hospital. loneliness, and quite tired with the journey-a Deeply, nay, entrancingly interesting as these longer one in those days as measured by time- cases are, when regarded from a purely scienshe was somewhat alarmed when the carriage- tific standpoint, they are yet unutterably saddoor was opened and a whole bevy of factory dening, as being in too many instances the girls got in. Their uncouth appearance, boister- more or less direct result of drinking habits, ous manners, and unintelligible form of speech which beget a recklessness too often leading to amazed her. Suddenly one girl turned to her terrible results. and said: 'Art starved?' To this abrupt question, totally misapprehending its import, she managed to stammer out: 'O no, thank you; I have plenty to eat.' 'Who thinks tha means clemmed?' put in another girl. Whereupon the first, in order to render her meaning quite clear, and to show that she did not ask from merely empty curiosity, took off her own shawl-it was a bitterly cold, frosty day-and wrapped it round the stranger. It was a trifling act, perhaps, but showed such hearty good-will as warmed the heart of this poor widow for many a long day.

VICTUALS IN SCOTLAND IN THE
OLDEN TIMES.

IN these days, when we read and hear so much
about free trade and fair trade, it may not be
uninteresting to take a look back to the olden
times and see how things were managed then.
Our 'rude forefathers' were not always a semi-
savage or barbarous race, for as early as the

code of laws.

times of David I.-more than seven hundred We wonder what a southerner would make years ago they had a considerable commerce of the following dialogue. A number of ladies with other nations, and the trade among themand gentlemen walking home from a friend's selves was regulated by a carefully drawn-up house one evening, separated into groups, one lady and gentleman being a little in advance Nor was their food always of a of the others. On waiting for their friends at a humble kind. They had not only the necessaries point where some of the party would have to of life, but they also enjoyed many of its luxuries. diverge, these two-who were, as it happened, The burghs had special privileges granted to perfect strangers until that evening-were sur- them by royal charter. The magistrates were prised to see the rest almost convulsed with bound to see that the traders acted according to laughter, but could get no clue to its meaning. the laws, and those failing to do so were fined The friend with whom the stranger-lady was by the chamberlain at his ayre. Traders were staying afterwards told her their amusement was caused by some mill-girls, who, not knowing that not allowed to interfere with one another's the different groups were members of one party, freely commented on the first lot in the hearing of the others. Alluding to the lady and her escort, one girl said-it happened that they were all in the gentleman's employ, but he had not noticed them-'Yon's th' measter.'-'Ay; but who's her?' from another girl. Then the first, in a voice expressive of intense scorn, mingled with contemptuous pity for her companion's scant perceptive powers: Dunnot tha see he's gotten?' A third hereupon chimed in: 'Ah, I tellt thee he'd getten.' We venture to think that never was more meaning compressed into fewer words; the interpretation thereof being, that 'th' measter,' who was a widower, had taken to himself another wife!

As a rule, hospital life in these manufacturing towns brings us chiefly into contact with the darker phases of humanity. Even here, there are occasional gleams of brightness; but for the most part, one sees the rougher side of life, in its results at least. Hurts received in drunken

liberties; and the chamberlain had to make a strict examination of all weights and measures. Sellers were to sell to all comers, and were not to keep more than fourpence-worth for their own use during the night.

The prices of the various commodities were fixed by the good men of the town. Besides gray or brown bread, there was the wheat 'white and well bolted.' Bakers who did not show their bread in their windows or in the market were fined, and their bread dealt out to the poor folk. Those who had a proper oven could have no more than four servants in their bakehouse-namely, the master, twa servandis, and a knave' (that is, apprentice). The lord of the oven received each time for his oven, one halfpenny; the master, one halfpenny; the two servants, one penny; and the knave,' one farthing. It was also ordained that bakers and other tradesmen were to sell on credit. Fleshers were to keep good flesh-beef, mutton, or pork,

and to expose it at their windows, so as to be were appointed to fix the prices of victuals, ale, seen of all men. They were to give their services and other necessaries, and workmen who took to the burgesses at killing-time-when the latter exorbitant prices were to be punished. Notwithwere in the habit of salting their meat for pro-standing this, we find that some years afterwards longed use during which time they were to prices of craftsmen's work had doubled and board with the servants of the burgesses. A trebled in consequence of the neglect of magisbutcher was not allowed to be a pastrycook; and trates to control the deacons of crafts who raised among other matters that the lord chamberlain the prices. Reasonable prices were now to be had to inquire into was whether the cooks pre- fixed, and hostellers were to charge a reasonable pared their food in a state fit for human use. price for dinner and supper. But during this The sale of fish was subject to the same stringent and the following century there were seasons of laws. As to ale, it was ordained that any woman dearth, and persons buying and holding_victuals who would brew ale for sale was required to until there was a dearth were to be punished. A have a sign put up in front of her house; she prohibition was made against storing corn until was to brew it all the year through according harvest, and old stacks were not to be kept longer to the custom of the town; the ale had to be than Christmas. Later still, all corn was to be of good quality; and if she made 'evil' ale and thrashed out before the end of May; no victual be convykkyt,' she had to pay a fine of eight was to be held in the 'girnel' more than was shillings, or 'thole the laugh of the toune,' and necessary for the support of the owner's housethe ale given to the poor folk and to the hold until Michaelmas, the rest to be sold at the brethren of the hospital. No magistrate was market; all extra had to be sold within nine allowed to brew ale for sale during his term of days, and searchers were appointed. No oxen office. By a tenure under the monks of Kelso, or sheep were to be sold out of the realm. the brewer was bound to furnish the abbot with beer at a halfpenny a gallon, being half the price charged to other people.

In the sixteenth century it was ordained that, to prevent dearth, no white fish were to be 'packed or peeled' until the country was supplied; and later on, the exportation of fish was

The great monasteries throughout the country possessed large tracts of land, either under culti-prohibited. Prelates, barons, and gentlemen vation or used for pastoral purposes, and by them were to be served in the sale of wine and salt were reared cereal and fruit crops of much value, before others. But while some had difficulty besides numerous flocks of sheep and herds of in procuring the food necessary for their proper cattle. The barons paid less attention to agri- sustenance, there were others who, like the rich culture than did their ecclesiastical brethren; but man, seem to have fared sumptuously every day. they lived in splendid style in their baronial Hence the legislature, considering that the superhalls, and entertained visitors in the most sump-fluous cheer partaken of both by small and tuous manner. In short, Scotland was at that time in a prosperous condition, and continued to be so until the unfortunate death of Alexander III., when the country was plunged into the disastrous war of Independence, and 'Oure gold wes changyd into lede.' The blot upon the prosperity of those times was, that the greater portion of the agricultural workers were not free men or women, but slaves. They were bought and sold, sometimes as families, sometimes as individuals, but most frequently they passed from owner to owner with the estates to which they belonged. After the war of Independence, slavery had greatly decreased in rural Scotland.

In olden times, as now, supply and demand had a good deal to do in fixing the prices of the various commodities for sale; but the legislature paid much attention to the subject. Knowing the aptness of human nature to make the best of any special occasion, the legislature enacted in 1424 that victuals were not to be sold at higher prices during the king's stay at any place than they had been sold at for ten days previously.

Victuals were 'richt scaunt' in 1478; importation was encouraged, and importers were to be 'honourably receivit.' Another season of great distress afterwards came; there was great want of victuals and other merchandise, arising partly from the circumstance that a large amount of counterfeit money was in circulation, and that it was impossible to know the good from the bad. In 1496 barons, magistrates, and 'hostellers'

*The sums mentioned in the above article are in Scots monies, the old Scots money being one-twelfth the value of money sterling.

great men was hurtful not only to their own bodies, but also to the commonwealth, enacted that an archbishop, bishop, or earl was to have at his 'mess' but eight dishes of meat; an abbot, a prior or dean, six dishes; a baron or freeholder, four; and a burgess or other 'substantious' man, either spiritual or temporal, three; and but one kind of meat in each dish. This Act, however, was not to strike at Yule, Pasch, patron-days, nor banquets to foreigners; such banquets to be given only by archbishops, bishops, earls, abbots, deans, barons, and provosts and magistrates of burghs. No lambs were to be killed for three years, except in nobles' and great barons' houses; and none were to kill young rabbits or partridges except gentlemen and nobles with hawks. The dearth increased, and another law was passed regarding the killing of lambs, but on this occasion there was no exception as to the nobles or gentlemen. Keepers of taverns were not to mix old and new wine, nor mix water with their wine; and ale-tasters were sworn to do their duty. Justices were ordered to see that good wholesome beer and ale were brewed; no salt was to be used in the brewery nor in washing of brewers' vessels. There was still an increase of the dearth of victuals, and flesh and tallow were not to be exported; but bread, ale, and aqua vitæ might be exported to the isles for barter. No one was to keep stacks after the 10th day of July, under pain of confiscation. Flesh was to be eaten four days in the week only; but the magistrates had the power to grant it to the sick who could not eat fish.

In 1574 the circulation of bad money again

caused a dearth, in consequence of which victuals were withheld. Five years afterwards, victuals were again 'skant;' and as great quantities of malt were consumed in making aqua vitæ, it was ordered that none be made from the first day of December till the first day of October following, except earls, barons, or gentlemen of sic degree to make it from their own malt within their own house for themselves and friends. It was found that one cause of the dearth was the keeping of horses at hard meat (corn) all the year through by persons of mean estate. This was prohibited; and only earls, prelates, lords, great barons, members of privy-council, lords of Session, or landed gentry that might spend of their own one thousand marks of yearly rent, all charges deducted, were excepted.

In the beginning of the seventeenth century there was an enactment by the Scottish PrivyCouncil to check the grit wastrie of wyne drukin in tavernis be a number of common artisans and rascall multitude;' and the price of wine in Edinburgh was fixed at six shillings per pint. About this time the common table in the College of Glasgow had two dietaries, one for the upper table at which the principal and the four regents were served,' the other for the 'lower table' of the eight bursars. At the upper table there were for breakfast 'ane quhyte breid of ane pund wecht in a sowpe, with the remains of a piece of beif or mutton resting of the former day, with thair pynt of aill amanges them;' and for dinner, white bread with ane dische of brose and ane uther of skink or kaill,' boiled beef or mutton, a roast of veal or mutton, with a fowl or rabbit, pigeons or chickens as a second roast, and five choppins of better ale than that commonly sold in the town. The supper was 'siclyke' as the dinner. The bursars had less variety, but a liberal supply, and were allowed a quart of ale among four both at dinner and supper.

In 1644, victuals having become so very scarce that they could not be had except at extraordinary prices, Sir Andrew Hepburn, treasurer of the army, brought the matter before the Estates, and asked for some persons to advise with him as to how victuals were to be procured for the forces. This request was granted. Three years after, the price of victuals had become so much reduced that exportation was permitted; but two years more and a sad change took place. There was a supplication by the Commissioners of the General Assembly as to the condition of the mean and poor people; and in consideration of this, exportation was again prohibited. For several years there was a great scarcity, and in 1698 a national fast was ordered. The harvest of that year became altogether disastrous; there were great winds, rains, and snowstorms, and a great part of the corn could not be cut down, so that in consequence of the want of food people died in the streets and highways, and in some parishes more than half of the inhabitants perished.

Such were some of the experiences of the people in the 'good old times;' and although, within comparatively recent years, there have been periods of depression and scarcity, there can be no doubt that we enjoy in respect to the necessaries and luxuries of life many blessings which our fathers never enjoyed.

THE CITY WAIF. WEARY and pale, a little child Stole softly through the dreary street, And evermore he faintly smiled,

As some child-fancy, quaint and sweet, Thrilled his young heart with wondrous bliss, Holy and calm as angel's kiss.

More eagerly his little feet

Sped o'er rough stones and reeking flags, As wind and rain in fury beat

On naked limbs and scanty rags, While shone a ray of heavenly grace Round prayer-clasped hands and wistful face. 'Tis true the world had been unkind, That hunger, cold, and cruel blows Had been his lot-he did not mind

The brimming cup of earthly woes,
Since he had heard the 'Preacher' tell
Of that bright land where angels dwell.
'Neath ragged cap, weird locks of brown
Strayed o'er wan cheek and mournful brow.
He sighed 'O for an angel's crown,

To clasp these throbbing temples now!'
Then sought with dim appealing eyes
Some token in the frowning skies.
A pitying hand was kindly laid

Upon his head. With cheek aglow,
He trembling shrank, as if afraid

Of brutal curse or sudden blow;
For pitying glance or kindly tone
His wretched life had seldom known.
'Nay; do not turn away, poor child!
But tell me where thy home may be?
The hour is late, the night is wild,

Some anxious mother waits for thee. From her fond care no longer roam.' 'Nay, sir,' he cried: Heaven is my home! 'I see its fields of shining light,

As 'neath some dripping arch I creep;
And in that land so calm and bright,

The little children never weep;
But evermore they sweetly rest
Close to their heavenly Father's breast!
"They never hear fierce curses there

(O sir, the "Preacher" told us so); And each a lovely robe may wear,

Who love "Our Father" here below. It must be true, for I have seen

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He sighed Earth's dearest gifts are mine!
Thy treasure lives beyond the skies:
O for such simple faith as thine!'
More faintly rose that childish prayer,
'Heaven is my home; oh, take me there!'
'Heaven is my home!'-Saint Paul's old bell
Tolled from afar the midnight hour;

A quivering ray of moonlight fell

On prayer-clasped hands, while Pomp and Power
Slept calmly on. Why should they hear
The songs of angels hovering near?

A pitying God alone could see

That upward glance of rapt delight—
The spirit struggling to be free,

And then that spirit's heavenward flight!
But in the Morning News' they read-

A little city waif found dead.' FANNY FORRESTER.

Printed and Published by W. & R. CHAMBERS, 47 Paternoster Row, LONDON, and 339 High Street, EDINBURGH.

All Rights Reserved.

CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL

OF

POPULAR

LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART

Fifth Series

ESTABLISHED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, 1832
CONDUCTED BY R. CHAMBERS (SECUNDUS)

No. 54.-VOL. II.

FINISH.

SATURDAY, JANUARY 10, 1885.

PRICE 1d.

remains to be imparted, in order to perfect the work, and this desideratum may or may not be within the scope of the author's powers.

in the details, it is, to a greater or less extent, faulty and, as a whole, below par. The concepIs the execution of any work of art or creative tion of it may be passably good; it may even design, it is generally the beginning and the be striking and original; but the development ending of the task which respectively present is defectively managed, and the whole, when the gravest difficulties to the worker, be he crafts- placed before us, does not satisfy our ideal of man, author, or artist. When the preliminary the harmonious and the beautiful. The finish matter of commencement has been satisfactorily is wanting. However complete it may appear disposed of, the equally important questions, to the author, it is yet unfinished. Something how and when to conclude, have yet to be considered. 'Well begun half-done,' is the proverb. But even with this moiety granted as accomplished, the remaining half-that which includes the ending-has still to be faced, and may present difficulties as great as those which beset the inception. We may begin to build, and yet be unable to finish, either from lack of resources, or, still more probably, from a superabundance of material, coupled with inability on our part to dispose of it to advantage. Yet it is the end which unquestionably 'crowns the work,' if the beginning lays the broad foundations.

In the sense we have in view, however, the 'finish' of any work, mechanical, artistic, or purely intellectual, is something above and beyond the actual conclusion of the effort producing it. It is the top-stone of the edifice; but it is more, and includes, possibly, much of the modelling throughout, and of the working plan itself, from the commencement. It is the style and manner of the entire volume, and not merely the author's latest emendations, or the words preceding the 'Finis' on the last page. It is the arrival at perfection of anything upon which labour has been bestowed, be it statue, painting, treatise, or poem, independent of the period at which that ideal stage has been reached. And each part of the completed whole may be viewed as contributing to this attained perfection, which we call 'finish.'

Thus, when we describe any piece of, say, literary work, as in this sense lacking the quality of finish, we do not mean that it concludes abruptly, and that the fitting ending is awanting, but that, from a certain crudeness of execution characterising it, or from the want of taste shown

In order to show that this quality of finish is independent of mere conclusion or finality, so far as execution is concerned, it is only necessary to consider that the fault of what we may call over-finish also exists. It is quite possible that a work of real genius, the production of a gifted author or artist, may be effectually marred by too much elaboration. The zealous care to avoid every possible error, which criticism might discover, being overdone, and too painfully evident upon the surface, artistic completeness is thereby lost. The anxiety of the worker to attain excellence has been such as to defeat its own purpose. The details are too daintily rechiselled to have been executed by the unfailing touch of genius. Over-carefulness has degenerated into stiffness, and destroyed the spontaneity of the creation.

Between these two extremes of excess and defect, lies true finish, as the golden mean. Avoiding immaturity of execution on the one hand, and the error of too much retouching on the other, it contributes unity and completeness to the perfect work of art. It is not a superficial coat of varnish laid on at the last moment, to hide deficiencies; least of all is it the hurried conclusion, the 'raw haste,' which is content to scamp details if only the ending of the task be arrived at.

It is scarcely necessary to state in this connection that the classic polish which adorns so many of the treasures of English literature is variable in quantity and quality, according to the method of the author and the requirements

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