atmospheric pressure was balanced and the pump rods fell. It is claimed that Newcomen and Calley were under no obligations to Savery, but gave him an interest in this patent to avoid threatened legal complications. However this may be, the numerous engines of the sort subsequently built were known as Newcomen atmospheric engines. Smeaton made great improvements in the Newcomen engine, but it was James Watt who, during the second half of the eight eenth century, transformed the atmospheric into the steam engine. (See STEAM ENGINE.) Watt left the pump end of the mechanical device much as he found it. Toward the close of the eighteenth century the use of the steam engine had been confined almost wholly to the raising of water, and the most notable steam pumping engines thus far developed had been erected in the mines of Cornwall. From 1800 to 1840 various improvements in these machines were made and the term Cornish engine came into use. The pump end changed from the bucket piston lift to the plunger force pump. The ponderous beam still remained, and though in ordinary municipal water-supply practice the long and heavy pump rods were not required, the Cornish beam pumping engine was, at best, a cumbersome device.

In 1840 Henry R. Worthington, of New York, while experimenting on the application of steam to canal navigation, invented the direct-acting steam pump to feed his boilers. In 1841 this new type, the first practical application of steam in this way, was patented. In 1845 the manufacture of such pumps was begun in South Brooklyn, and in 1850 Mr. Worthington submitted a number of small low-lift valves for the single highlift valve previously employed. In 1855 the first direct-acting Worthington pump for waterworks service was put in use at Savannah, Ga. In 1857 an unsuccessful attempt was made to secure the adoption at Brooklyn of a new departure in pumping engines, namely, the duplex pump; but it was not till 1863 that the first duplex Worthington pump was erected. This was at Charlestown, Mass., and it had a capacity of 5,000,000 gallons a day. In 1884 the Worthington high-duty pump attachment, already described, was perfected by C. C. Worthington of the firm of H. R. Worthington. The original device was invented by J. D. Davis in 1879 and subsequently bought by the firm just named. The Worthington pumps are of the horizontal type, and the illustration shows a Worthington pumping machine installed at the Baltimore water-works high-service pumping station and delivering 17,500,000 gallons of water daily. A high-duty pumping engine, designed by I. P. Morris of Philadelphia, was installed at Lowell, Mass., in 1873. It was a vertical compound, having the two steam cylinders under one end of the beam and the pump and fly-wheel under the other end. It had a daily capacity of 5,000,000 gallons and gave a duty of 93,000,000 footpounds per 100 pounds of coal. In the same year (1873) another type of high-duty pumping engine, after designs by E. D. Leavitt, Jr., of Cambridgeport, Mass., was tested at Lynn, Mass. It showed a duty of 104,000,000 foot-pounds per 100 pounds of coal. This was the first of a series of high-duty fly-wheel engines designed by Leavitt, which changed, later on, from the compound, or double, to the triple expansion type. One of these pumping engines, built for the Calu

met and Hecla Mining Company, in Michigan, has a daily capacity of 60,000,000 gallons. For a high-lift and high-duty pump this is believed to be unsurpassed in size.

Another name connected with the development of pumping engines is that of George H. Corliss, of Providence, R. I. He erected a compound engine, with double-acting pump plungers, at Pawtucket, R. I., in 1878, which gave a duty of 127,000,000 foot-pounds per 100 pounds of coal. The pump end had annular bronze valve disks only 1-32 inch think. The diameters of the valves are 24 inches, and the lift 1 inch. The aggregate area of the valves is equal to the area of the plungers. A type of fly-wheel pumping engine which has been very widely used in the United States is the Holly-Gaskill, invented by H. F. Gaskill, of Lockport, N. Y. The first of these was erected at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., in 1882. It had a capacity of 4,000,000 gallons a day and showed test duties ranging from 102,000,000 to 113,000,000 foot-pounds per 100 pounds of coal. It was a compound, horizontal, crank-and-fly-wheel engine with double-acting plunger pumps.

Another class of high-duty pumping engines is commonly known as the Allis, from the makers, and is frequently named from the chief engineer of the builders, Edwin Reynolds. The first pump of this type was built in 1886 for the city of Milwaukee, Wis. The three pumps are single-acting plunger, the engines are tripleexpansion, and the cranks are placed on the axle at the angle of 120° with each other, in order to so vary the time of the stroke of each pump as to give a continuous flow of water. This pumping engine gave a test of 129,000,000 foot-pounds per 100 pounds of coal, which has been greatly exceeded by later Allis machines, one of which is shown on the accompanying plate.

MUNICIPAL PUMPING PLANTS. In 1582 a Dutchman named Peter Maurice erected a large pumping plant at London Bridge for the water supply of London. A current wheel drove 16 force pumps, each 17 inches in diameter and 30 inches long. By this means 216 gallons of water per minute, or 311,000 gallons a day, were raised to a cistern at an elevation of 120 feet, from which buildings near by were supplied through lead pipes.

The earliest pumping plant in America, or at least the earliest one on record as supplying water for municipal purposes, was built at Bethlehem, Pa., some time between 1754 and 1761. It is described as a five-inch lignum vitæ pump, and lifted water to a height of 70 feet, through bored hemlock logs. In 1761 three single-acting iron force pumps, of 4-inch bore and 18-inch stroke, driven by an undershot water-wheel, were substituted. Of other early American pumping plants, the Center Square and the Fairmouth works at Philadelphia, started in 1801 and 1815 respectively, are perhaps the most notable. It is stated that about 1760 a Newcomen atmospheric pumping engine was imported from England for use at copper mines near Belleville, N. J. What appears to have been the first steam pumping engine to be built in the United States was erected by the city of Philadelphia in 1800 and put in operation on January 27, 1801, at the Center Square Works. One of the pumps lifted water from the river level to a second

pump about 50 feet higher, which in turn raised it another 50 feet. Both pumps were doubleacting force pumps and the engines had wooden lever beams and fly-wheels. The pumps had a daily capacity of 3,000,000 gallons. The iron steam cylinder of at least one of these engines was cut in halves, united by copper, and secured externally by an iron band 18 inches wide. This cylinder was 36 inches in diameter.

A screw wheel pump of immense size and capacity, but of very low lift, was put in operation at Milwaukee, Wis., in 1889. It is used to force water through a brick-lined tunnel, 12 feet in diameter and 2500 feet long, to flush the Milwaukee River, which is badly polluted with sewage. The screw wheel is 13 feet in diameter. At 60 revolutions per minute it delivers 525,000,000 gallons a day against a head or lift of 4 feet. On a run of a number of months it gave a duty of 69,000,000 foot-pounds per 100 pounds of coal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult: Barr, Hydraulic Machinery (London and New York, 1897), technical, with chapters on pumps; Ewbank, A Descriptive and Historical Account of Hydraulic and Other Machines for Raising Water, Ancient and Modern (New York, 1876, new ed.), a curious and interesting account of the development of pumps of all sorts up to the early part of the nineteenth century; Hood, New Tests of Certain Pumps and Water Lifts Used in Irrigation, Water Supply and Irrigation Papers, United States Geological Survey, No. 14 (Washington, D. C., 1898); also chapters on pumps in general reference books cited under articles on IRRIGATION and WATER

WORKS. See AIR COMPRESSORS; ARCHIMEDES' SCREWS; DRAINAGE; HYDRAULIC RAM; and STEAM ENGINE.

PUÑACA, poo-nyä'kå. A small goby or guavina (Dormitator maculatus), dark brown, with lighter bluish spots, and from one to two feet in length. It presents a great variety of This and a number of closely allied fishes (see GUAVINA) are called 'sleepers' because

forms.

PUNACA.

traced back to the simpleton Maccus of the ancient Atellan farces, though with little other proof than its resemblance to a small bronze figure of the latter, discovered near Naples in 1727. The form of the play, as we know it, seems to be largely of French development, since our Punch is in several respects quite different from the character as he has survived in the vicinity of Naples. Having found its way to England in the seventeenth century, the exhibition became very popular there. Its popularity seems to have reached its height in the time of Queen Anne, and Addison has given in the Spectator a criticism of one of the performances. The scenes, as now given by strolling Punch and Judy shows, are much shortened from those originally performed, in which allusions to public events of the time were sometimes interpolated. The minor variations of the acted version are infinite. Jeremy Collier called Punch the Don Juan of the people. A similar character is said to exist in the puppet shows of India and elsewhere in the Orient. In Paris, Punch, who is a great favorite of the children on afternoons in the Champs Elysées, is called Guignol (q.v.). This name properly belongs to a puppet character of Lyons, invented about the end of the eighteenth century, quite local and figuring in several mimic comedies. When brought to Paris, the title was applied to the original Polichinelle. Consult works cited under PUPPET; also Collier, Punch and Judy, with Punch's Real History (3d ed., London, 1844), illustrated by Cruikshank.

PUNCH. An important English weekly paper, devoted to humorous and satirical commentary

on current events. It is doubtful if the whole story of its origin will ever be known, but the consensus of opinion seems to be in favor of crediting the original idea to Ebenezer Landells, a London wood engraver and draughtsman, and Henry Mayhew, a well-known wit and writer. The original idea was to reproduce in London the success of Philipon's Charivari, which already had an established position in Paris. May

hew secured Mark Lemon as editor and a staff of writers, and the first issue was published on July 17, 1841. According to Lemon's manifesto, published in the first number, it was destined to fight for the abolition of the Fleet and Marshalsea prisons and of capital punishment, and to uphold the standard of national integrity and virtue. It succeeded with the first part of its programme, and while it has ceased its crusade against capital punishment, it has consistently attacked abuses of all kinds, as well as every form of sham gentility, vulgar ostentation, crazes

PUNCH (abbreviation of Punchinello, from Fr. Polichinelle, from It. polcinello, clown, buffoon, puppet, diminutive of polcino, pulcino, child, young chicken, from pullus, young chicken, young of any animal). The chief personage in the popular comic drama of Punch and Judy, performed by means of puppets. See PUPPET.

The history of the play in which Punch figures is hardly less obscure than that of its designation. The invention of the piece is ascribed to an Italian comedian, Silvio Fiorello, about 1600, but it was later modified by Andrea Calcese, and very likely it is in substance much older. The personality of Punch has even been

affectations of fashion whether in language or in habits. Throughout the world it is regarded as an exponent of English opinion scarcely inferior to the London Times itself. While it draws its materials as freely from the happenings of foreign politics as from the occurrences of English national life, it has nevertheless always judged external events from the English point of view, and home affairs from the highest moral standard.

At the time of its inception it was practically the only periodical which could be said truthfully to represent the attitude of the great mass of the British nation, absolutely free from party or governmental bias. Its humor, like its policy,

has been typically English-so much so that it has been frequently misunderstood by foreign critical opinion, with the result that its insularity has lost for it the best work of non-English contributors. An exception to this rule was the engagement of 'Artemus Ward.' The renowned French caricaturist Caran d'Ache has also drawn for it. A list of the Englishmen who have met weekly about the table on which most of them have carved their initials would include many of the best-known writers and artists. Among the former may be mentioned Douglas Jerrold, Thomas Hood, and Thackeray, who wrote for it until 1854; among the latter, Keene, Sambourne, Leech, Tenniel, Briton Rivière, du Maurier, Harry Furniss, and Phil May. Lemon was editor from the beginning until 1870; the later editors have been Shirley Brooks, 1870-74; Tom Taylor, 1874-80; and Sir F. C. Burnand, 1880-. Consult: Spielmann, The History of Punch (London, 1895); Mayhew, A Jorum of Punch (ib., 1895). PUNCH (from ML. punctuare, punctare, to pierce, from Lat. punctum, punctus, point, from pungere, to pierce). A tool for cutting circular or other shaped pieces out of metal, wood, or other materials. The simplest form of this instrument consists of a piece of steel formed at one end into a hollow cylinder, the end of which is ground to a very sharp cutting edge. The other end of the punch is made strong and thick, to receive blows from a hammer, and to serve as a handle. When the instrument is in use, the cutting edge is applied to the surface which is to be perforated, and a blow sufficiently hard is struck on the end of the handle, when a circular piece of the material is cut out and left in the hollow part, which can be removed at the upper end of the cylinder. Punches are also made where a die or punch fits accurately into a corresponding hole through which the material is forced. See DIES AND DIE SINKING. For punching machines, see METAL-WORKING MACHINERY. PUNCTUATION (ML. punctuatio, from punctuare, punctare, to pierce). In writing or printing, the use of certain marks called points, to separate sentences and parts of sentences. Its most important office is that of preventing ambiguity or obscurity. More inclusively, its object is to indicate correct grouping of the words, as an aid to quick perception of their relationships, and so of their meaning.

In Greek inscriptions and manuscripts generally, there is no attempt to separate the words, and in early times no system of punctuation was employed. It is true that in some archaic inscriptions columns of dots are occasionally found separating words, but they have no reference to the pauses, and cannot properly be called punctuation. However, even by the end of the fourth century B.C., readers found it convenient to indicate pauses by arbitrary signs, though the published copies of books seem to have known no division of words or use of diacritical signs. The development of an organized system of punctuation seems to have occurred at Alexandria. To judge from the papyri, the earliest mark is used to indicate a new paragraph. Here a slight space is left in the line (later a large initial is sometimes found), while below the line in which the pause occurs is drawn a short horizontal line (the so-called raрáyрapos, paragraphos) which sometimes takes the form of a wedge. This

sign is used in the plays to indicate a change of speaker, and in the papyrus of Bacchylides to mark in the odes the strophe, antistrophe, and epode. Another method was the employment of a dot or small circle, and we are told that Aristarchus of Byzantium systematized this use, so that the point high above the line indicated a full stop, that low on the line a lesser pause, like a semicolon, and the point in the middle a comma. This system, however, though accepted by the grammarians, does not appear in the papyri, where the point is usually placed high, whatever its value.

In general it may be said that these and other diacritical signs seem to have been used chiefly in editions of the poets, whose dialectic and archaic forms presented greater difficulties to the ordinary reader. Other systems, some of great complexity, were employed by later grammarians and editors, but did not come into general use. The Greek manuscripts of later date show a system more like that now employed. About the ninth century the comma appears to denote the slight pause, while the high dot () indicates a colon or semicolon, and the full stop is denoted by a larger dot or double dot and a space. A little later the interrogation point (;) appears, though not very frequently. The Latin grammarians adopted the punctuation by dots from the Greeks, but seemingly modified the system slightly so as to give the middle dot the middle value, and the lower the smallest. The oldest manuscripts, however, show no punctuation at all, and the later uncials show great variety, and no recognized system. In the seventh century we find the equivalent to a comma, the semicolon with its modern value, and a full stop expressed by a more complex sign. In the Carolingian and later manuscripts the system is somewhat altered, and approaches more closely that in common use, as the comma is introduced, and an inverted semicolon to indicate a pause between comma and semicolon, while a sign of interrogation also appears. Quotation marks in various forms are found early in both Greek and Latin manuscripts.

All modern languages agree practically in the use of the same points, applied according to principles laid down by Aldus Manutius (1450-1515), but since his time, of course, extensively developed. Differences in detail between languages rest mainly on different methods of thought and construction, though some peculiarities are arbitrary. In Spanish a question or an exclamation has its especial mark at the beginning as well as at the end. French has a peculiar set of quotation marks, and German uses commas in normal position at the beginning and inverted commas at the close of a quotation. But the leading principles are universal. Punctuation in English is legitimately subject in many respects to personal choice, since many sentences, when not very long and of simple construction, are equally clear whether points are or are not freely used. Liberal insertion of points is called close punctuation, and omission of all but those absolutely necessary is known as open punctuation. The latter practice probably prevails at present in the best English usage, although the only statement that may be made with certainty in this respect is that usage is not uniform.

Differing methods of pointing have been called