corn-fields, and mountains of our own country. The chief is L. officinale; with smooth seeds, corols hardly exceeding the calyx; leaves lanceolate, rather acute, veined. The seeds were formerly used as a lithagogue, or expeller of the stone in the bladder; and are sometimes still employed in the form of emulsions for obviating strangury.

LITHOSTRATO, among the ancients, pavements made up of small pieces of cut marble of different kinds and colour. See TESSELATED.

LITHOTOMIST. 8. (os and Téμw.) A chirurgeon who extracts the stone by opening the bladder.

The

See

LITHO'TOMY. s. (aldos and ciμvw.) art or practice of cutting for the stone. SURGERY. LITHUANIA, a large country of Europe, anciently governed by its grand dukes, but, in 1569, united to Poland, under one elective king. It is bounded on the south by Volhinia; on the west by Little Poland, Polachia, Prussia, and Samogitia; on the north by Livonia and Russia, which last bounds it on the east. It is 300 miles long and 250 broad. The principal rivers are, the Dnieper, Dwina, Nieman, Pripecz, and Bog. It is a flat country; and the soil is not only fertile in corn, but it produces honey, wood, pitch, and vast quantities of wool: here are also excellent little horses, which are never shod, their hoofs being very hard. There are vast forests, in which are bears, wolves, elks, wild oxen, lynxes, beavers, wild cats, &c. and eagles and vultures are very common. In the forests, large pieces of yellow amber are frequently dug up. The country swarms with Jews, who, though numerous in every other part of Poland, seem to have fixed their head-quarters in this duchy; and this, perhaps, is the only country in Europe where Jews cultivate the ground. The peasants are in the most abject vassalage. In 1772, Empress Catharine compelled the Poles to cede to her all that part of Lithuania, bordering upon Russia and including at least one-third of the country. This she erected into the two governments of Polotsk and Mohilef. In 1793, in conjunction with the king of Prussia, she effected another parti. tion of Poland, in consequence of which she extended her dominion over almost the whole of Lithuania.

LITIGANT. 8. (litigans, Latin.) One engaged in a suit of law (L'Estrange).

LITIGANT. a. Engaged in a juridical contest (Ayliffe).

To LITIGATE. v. a. (liligo, Latin.) To contest in law; to debate by judicial pro

ling (Donne). 2. Disputable; controvertible (Dryden). LITIGIOUSLY. ad. Wranglingly. LITIGIOUSNESS. 8. A wrangling disposition; inclination to vexatious suits.

LITMU'S, or ARCHIL. (Orseille, Tournesol, French.) A beautiful but penetrable dye, in the form of a red paste, prepared from a species of lichen, which grows abundantly. in the Canary Islands, in the south of France, and in several other parts. Many other species of lichen have also the property of assuming a beautiful purple, when prepared in the same manner as litmus. It is generally met with in commerce in the form of cakes, like anotta ; and these cakes are prepared both in Holland and in London, in large quantities, for the use of the dyers.

The process employed in Holland has been long concealed as much as possible; but it is known to be effected by fermenting the moss, or lichen, and adding alkalies and urine. The following is said to be the process: The lichen is first dried, cleansed, and reduced to powder in a sort of oil-mill. The powder is next thrown into a trough with one half its weight of pearl-ash; and moistened with a little human urine, and allowed to ferment.

This fermentation is kept up for some time by successive additions of urine, till the colour of the materials changes first to red, and then to blue. While in this state, it is mixed with a third of its weight of very good pot-ash, and spread upon deep wooden trays till it dries. A quantity of chalk is added at last, apparently with no other object than to increase the weight.

The colour of archil is readily extracted by water, or by alkohol. The colour of the watery solution, or of any substance dyed with it, soon fades by exposure to air; and hence it is used to give a gloss or finish to the deeper and more permanent colours. For this purpose, it is much employed in the dyeing of silks, stuffs, and ribbons.

All acids, and salts with excess of acids, change the natural violet purple of litmus to red; and this change is effected so readily and perfectly, with a very small quantity of acidity, as to render litmus a valuable test to the chemist, to detect the presence of uncombined acids. Even the carbonic acid, in so small a proportion as that in which it exists in the breath (about five or six per cent. of the bulk of the air expired), may be made to change the colour of litmus infusion, if a little of it, diluted, so that the purple-blue is scarcely visible, be shaken in a phial, containing air expired from the lungs. It is probable, too, on account of the carbonic acid from the atmosphere, that paper, or any thing else tinged with litmus, reddens before the colour is altogether lost. When reddened by an acid, the Blue is restored by an alkali; and thus litmus may be made a test both of acid and al. kali.

None of the known mordants appear to

have any effect in rendering the dye of archil less perishable, except perhaps the solution of tin; but this being always acid, also changes the colour, so that the fine purple-blue is equally lost. Marble soaked with litmus liquor, imbibes it in some days, and becomes beautifully tinged, and the colour will remain for a considerable time unimpaired.

LITIZ, a town of the state of Pennsylvania. Here is a flourishing settlement of the Moravians, begun in 1757. It is eight miles from Lancaster, and 70 west of Philadelphia.

LITSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Austria, 70 miles north-west of Vienna. Long. 14. 55 E. Lat. 48. 48 N.

LITTER (lectica), a kind of vehicle borne upon shafts; anciently esteemed the most easy and genteel way of carriage. Du Cange derives the word from the barbarous Latin lectcria, "straw or bedding for beasts." Others will rather have it come from lectus, "bed;" there being ordinarily a quilt and a pillow to a litter, in the same manner as to a bed. Pliny calls the litter the traveller's chamber: it was much in use among the Romans, among whom it was borne by slaves kept for that purpose; as it still continues to be in the East, where it is called a palan quin. The Roman lectica, made to be borne by four men, was called tetraphorum; that borne by six, hexaphorum; and that borne by eight, octaphorum. The invention of litters, according to Cicero, was owing to the kings of Bithynia: in the time of Tiberius they were become very frequent at Rome, as appears from Seneca: and even slaves them selves were borne in them, though never by more than two persons, whereas men of quality had six or eight.

LITTER also denotes a parcel of dry old straw put upon the floor of a horse's stall, for him to lie down and rest upon.

LITTER denotes further-1. A brood of young (L'Estrange). 2. A birth of animals (Dryden). 3. Any number of things thrown sluttishly about (Swift).

To LITTER. v. a. (from the noun.) 1. To bring forth; used of beasts, or of human beings in contempt (Brown). 2. To cover with things negligently (Swift). 3. To cover with straw (Dryden). 4. To supply cattle with bedding.

LITTERE LLA. Shore-weed. In botany, a genus of the class monoecia; order tetrandria. Male; calyx four-leaved; corol onepetalled, four-cleft; stigmas very long. Fe male: calyxless; corol one-petalled, unequally three-cleft; style filiform, very long; nut one-celled. One species only, a native of the sandy marshes, and shores of our own country.

LITTERMORE, an island near the west coast of Ireland, and county of Galway, about four miles long and two broad. Long. 9. 40 W. Lat. 55, 17 N.

LITTLE. a. comp. less; superlat. least (leitels, Gothic; lytel, Saxon). 1. Small in extent (Joshua). 2. Not great; small; diminutive (Locke). 3. Of small dignity, power, or importance (Samuel). 4. Not much; not many (Pope).` 5. Some, not none (Locke).

LITTLE. 8. 1. A small space (Dryden). 2. A small part; a small proportion (Locke). 3. A slight affair (Prior). 4. Not much (Cheyne).

LITTLE. ad. 1. In a small degree (Watts). 2. In a small quantity (Otway). 3. In some degree, but not great (Arbuthnot). 4. Not much (Swift).

LITTLENESS. 8. (from little.) 1. Smallness of bulk (Burnet). 2. Meanness; want of grandeur (Addison). 3. Want of dignity (Collier).

LITTLETON (SIR THOMAS), judge of the Common Pleas, was the eldest son of Thomas Westcote, Esq. of the county of Devon, by Elizabeth, sole heiress of Thomas Littleton, of Frankley, in Worcestershire, at whose request he took the name and arms of that family. He was educated at one of our universities, probably at Cambridge. Thence he removed to the Inner Temple, where he became one of the readers; and was afterwards, by Henry VI. made steward or judge of the court of the palace, or marshalsea of the king's household. In 1455, the thirtythird of that reign, he was appointed king's serjeant, and rode the northern circuit as judge of assize. In 1462, the second of Edward IV., he obtained a pardon from the crown; and, in 1466, was appointed one of the judges of the Common Pleas, and rode the Northamptonshire circuit. In the year 1474 he was, with many of the first nobility, created knight of the bath. He died in 1481; and was buried in the cathedral church of Worcester, where a marble tomb, with his statue upon it, was erected to his memory. As to his character as a lawyer, it is sufficient to inform the reader, that he was the author of the Treatise upon Tenures, on which Sir Edward Coke wrote a comment, well known by the title of Coke upon Littleton.

LITTLETON (Adam), descended from an ancient family in Shropshire, was born in 1627, educated at Westminster School, and went to Oxford a student of Christ Church, whence he was ejected by the parliament visitors in 1648. Soon after, he became usher of Westminster School, and in 1658 was made second master. After the restora tion he taught a school at Chelsea, in Middlesex, of which church he was admitted rector in the year 1664. In 1670, he accnmulated the degrees in divinity, being then chaplain in ordinary to his majesty. 1674, he became prebendary of Westminster, of which church he was afterwards sub-dean. Beside the well-known Latin and English Dictionary, he published several other works.

In

LITURGY, denotes all the ceremonies in general belonging to divine service. The word comes from the Greek service, public ministry; formed of public; and spyou, work.

In a more restrained signification, liturgy is used among the Romanists to signify the mass; and among us the common prayer.

All who have written on liturgies agree, that in the primitive days divine service was extremely simple, only clogged with a very few ceremonies, and consisting of but a small number of prayers; but, by degrees, they increased the number of external ceremonies, and added new prayers, to make the office look more awful and venerable to the people. At length things were carried to such a pitch, that a regulation became necessary; and it was found proper to put the service, and the manner of performing it, into writing; and this was what they called a liturgy.

Liturgies not being enjoined or forbidden in Scripture, must be judged of," says Dr. Paley, "by their expediency."

Now, a liturgy, first, prevents (or may prevent) absurd or extravagant addresses to God.

Second. It prevents the confusion of extempore prayer.

Third. It supplies, in some measure, the imperfections of the deliverer.

Joint prayer, which is the end of a congregation, without a liturgy is nearly im, possible.

→ Our Saviour authorises a fixed form of prayer, by appointing the Lord's Prayer.

The properties required in a liturgy are, First, That it be compendious. "Brevity may be studied too much; for it is necessary that the attention, which slumbered in one part, may be recalled in another.

"Second, That it express just conceptions of the divine attributes:

“Because by it the popular notions of God are formed.

Third, That it recite such wants as the congregation are likely to feel, and no

other.

"Upon this principle our state prayers are too long.

"Fourthly, That it contain as few controverted propositions as possible." Paley's Moral Philosophy, book 5.

On the contrary side of the question, the principal argument is, that the frequent petition of the same prayers, with scarcely any variation, has a natural tendency to produce carelessness in the worshippers; in Consequence of which they may go over the litargy while their hearts are far otherwise

occupied, and thus exhibit "the form of religion without the power.

Liturgies have been different at different times, and in different countries. We have the liturgy of St. Chrysostom, that of St. Peter, of St. James, the liturgy of St. Basil, the Armenian liturgy, the liturgy of the Maronites, of the Cophtæ, the Roman liturgy, the Gallican liturgy, the English liturgy, the Ambrosian liturgy, the Spanish and African liturgies, &c.

In the more early ages of the church, every bishop had the power to form a liturgy for his own diocese; and if he kept to the analogy of faith and doctrine, all circumstances were left to his own discretion. Afterwards the practice was for the whole province to follow the metropolitan church, which also became the general rule of the church: and this Linwood acknowledges to be the common law of the church; intimating, that the use of several services in the same province, which was the case in England, was not to be warranted but by long custom. The liturgy of the church of England was composed in the year 15-17, and established in the second year of King Edward VI. stat. 2. and 3 Edw. VI. cap. 1.

In the fifth year of this king it was reviewed; because some things were contained in that liturgy which shewed a compliance with the superstition of those times, and some exceptions were taken against it by some learned men at home, and by Calvin abroad. Some alterations were made in it, which consisted in adding the general confession and absolution, and the communion to begin with the ten commandments. The use of oil in confirmation, and extreme unction were left out, and also prayers for souls departed, and what tended to a belief of Christ's real presence in the eucharist. This liturgy, so reformed, was established by the act of 5 and 6 Edw. VI. cap. 1. However, it was abolished by Queen Mary, who enacted that the service should stand as it was most commonly used in the last year of the reign of King Henry VIII. The liturgy of 5 and 6 Edw. VI. was re-established with some few alterations and additions, by 1 Eliz. cap. 2. Some farther alterations were introduced, in consequence of the review of the Common Prayer Book, by order of King James, in the first year of his reign; particularly in the office of private baptism, in several rubricks and other passages, with the addition of five or six new prayers and thanksgivings, and all that part of the catechism which contains the doctrine of the sacraments. The Book of Common Prayer, so altered, remained in force from the first year of King James, to the fourteenth of Charles 11. But the last review of the liturgy, was in the year 1661, and the last act of uniformity enjoining the observance of it, is 13 and 14 Car. II. cap. 4. See COMMON Prayer. Many applications have been

LIVADIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, bounded on the north by Janna, on the east by the Archipelago, on the south by the Morea, and on the west by the Mediterranean. It includes ancient Greece properly so called, and its capital is Setine, the once celebrated Athens.

LIVADIA, au ancient town of Turkey in Europe, in a province of the same name. It has a trade in wool, corn, and rice, and is 58 miles north-west of Athens. Long. 23. 26 E. Lat. 38. 40 N.

LIVADOSTA, a town of Livadia, seated on the gulf of Lepanto, in the isthmus of Corinth, to the north of the city of that name, with a bishop's see.

To LIVE. v. a. (lýrian, lýrigan, Saxon.) 1. To be in a state of animation; to be not dead (Dryden). 2. To pass life in any certain manner with regard to habits, good or ill, happiness or misery (Hammond). 3. To continue in life (Shakspeare). 4. To live emphatically; to be in a state of happiness (Dryden). 5. To be exempt from death, temporal or spiritual (Thessalonians). 6. To remain undestroyed (Burnet). 7. To continue; not to be lost (Lore). 8. To converse; to cohabit (Shakspeare). 9. To feed (Arbuthnot). 10. To maintain one's self (Temple). 11. To be in a state of motion or vegetation (Dryden). 12. To be unextinguished (Dryden).

LIVE. a. (from alive.) 1. Quick; not dead (Exodus). 2. Active; not extinguished (Boyle).

LIVE-ever. Live-long, in botany. See

SEDUM.

LIVELESS. a. (from live.) Wanting life: rather, lifeless (Shakspeare).

LIVELIHOOD. 8. Support of life; maintenance; means of living (Clarendon).

LIVELINESS. s. (from lively.) 1. Appearance of life (Dryden). 2. Vivacity; sprightliness (Locke).

LIVELODE. 8. Maintenance; support; livelihood (Spenser).

LIVELONG. a. (live and long.) 1. Tedious; long in passing (Shakspeare). 2. Lasting; durable: not used (Milton). LIVELY. a. (live and like.) 1. Brisk; vigorous; vivacious (Milton). 2. Gay; airy (Pope). 3. Representing life (Dryden). 1. Strong; energetic (Newton).

LIVELY, or LIVELILÝ. ad. 1. Briskly; vigorously (Hayward). 2. With strong resemblance of life (Dryden).

LIVER. 8. (from live.) 1. One who lives (Prior). 2. One who lives in any particular manner (Atterbury).

LIVER. (Hepar, res.) In anatomy, a large viscus of a deep red colour, of great size and weight, situated under the diaphragm, in the right hypochondrium, its smaller portiou occupying part of the epigastric region. In the human body the liver is divided into two principal lobes, the right of which is by far the largest. They are separated on the upper side by a broad ligament, and on the lower side by a considerable depression or fossa: Between these two lobes is a smaller lobe, called lobulus Spigelii. In describing this viscus, it is necessary to attend to seven principal circumstances:-First, its ligaments. Second, its surfaces. Third, its margins. Fourth, its tubercles. Five, its fissure. Six, its sinus and, Seven, the pori biliarii.

The ligaments of the liver are four in number, all arising from the peritoneum. 1. The right lateral ligament, which connects the thick right lobe with the posterior part of the diaphragm.

2. The left lateral ligament, which connects the convex surface and margin of the left lobe with the diaphragm, and in those of whom the liver is very large with the phagus and spleen.

so

3. The broad or middle supensory ligament, which passes from the diaphragm into the convex surface, and separates the right lobe of the liver from the left. It descends from above through the large fissure to the concave surface, and is then distributed over the whole liver.

The round ligament, which in adults consists of the umbilical vein indurated into a ligament. The liver has two surfaces, one superior, which is convex and smooth, and one inferior, which is concave, and has holes and depressions to receive not only the contiguous viscera, but the vessels running into the liver. The margins of the liver are also two in number; the one, which is posterior and superior, is obtuse; the other, situated anteriorly and inferiorly, is acute. The tubercles of the liver are likewise two in number, and are found near the vena portæ. Upon looking on the concave surface of this viscus a considerable fissure is obvious, known by the name of the fissure of the liver; but, in order to expose the sinus, it is necessary to remove the gall-bladder, when a considerable sinus, before occupied by the gall-bladder, will be apparent. The blood

vessels of the liver at the hepatic artery, the vena portæ, and the cave hepatica, which are described under their proper Dames. The absorbents of the liver are very Bumerous. The liver has nerves from the great intercostal and eighth pair, which arise from the hepatic plexus, and proceed along with the hepatic artery and vena portæ into the substance of the liver. With regard to the substance of the liver, various opinions have been entertained. It is, how ever, now pretty well ascertained to be a large gland, composed of smaller glands connected together by cellular structure. The small glands which thus compose the sub stance of the liver are termed penicilli, from the arrangement of the arterial ramifications of the vena portæ composing each gland, resembling that of the hairs of a pencil. The chief use of this large viscus is to supply a fluid, named bile, to the intestines, which is of great importance in chylification. The small penicilli perform this function by a specific action on the blood they contain, by which they secrete in their very minute ends the fluid termed hepatic bile; but whether they pour it into what is called a follicle, or not, is yet undecided, and is the cause of the difference of opinion. respecting the substance of the liver. If it be secreted into a follicle, the substance is truly glandular, according to the notions of the older anatomists; but if it he secreted merely into a small vessel, called a biliary pore (whose existence can be demonstrated), corresponding to the end of each penicilli, without any intervening follicle, its substance is then, in their opinion, vascular. According to our notions in the present day, in either case, the liver is said to be glandular; for wwe connect to our senses the idea of a gland, when any arrangement of the vessels performs the office of separating from the blood-a fluid or substance different in its nature from the blood. The small vessels which receive the bile secreted by the penicilli, are called pori biliarii; these progressively converge throughout the substance of the liver towards its under surface, and at length form one trunk, called ductus hepaticus, which conveys the bile into either the ductus communis choledochus, or ductus cys licus.

See GALL-BLADDER.

On examining the substance of the human liver chemically, Fourcroy found that alkali dissolved a part of it, and formed with it a soap; that alcohol also dissolved a part of it, which, on the addition of water, deposited a white flaky substance. This substance, deprived of a small portion that was soluble in water, was of a yellowish colour, soft and greasy to the touch, like a concrete oil water melted it under boiling heat, but did not take away its colour. It had then a slight odour like melted wax. On being cast into a porcelain cup, it becomes fixed into a solid brittle cake, of a polished surface, and snapped on breaking.

Its internal texture was lamellated and manifestly crystallised. Heated alcohol completely dissolved it, and it presented all the properties of spermaceti, with this only dif ference, that it was not so dry, white, and transparent, but more soluble in alcohol than spermaceti. This appeared to be in a state of soap in the liver, for water likewise extracted it by means of heat, and the oil was afterwards rendered concrete on cooling, but the smallness of the quantity of liver prevented this chemist from making any further experi

ments.

Vanquelin, in like manner extracted an oil from the liver of the skate, which became white as fat, and likewise as thick; and very similar to wax that had been kept warm between the fingers for some time.

Perhaps these are only instances of the partial conversion of animal matters into ADIPOCIRE, which see.

LIVER of Antimony. See STIBIUM. LIVER of Arsenic. See ARSENICUM. LIVER of Sulphur. See SULPHUR. LIVER-wort, in botany. See ANEMONE. LIVER-wort, ash-coloured, or ground, or Iceland. See LICHEN.

LI'VER-Wort, marsh. See RIECIA. LIVERCOLOUR. a. (liver and colour.) Dark red (Woodward).

LIVERGROWN. a. (liver and grown.) Having a great liver (Graunt).

LIVERDUN, a town of France, in the department of Meurthe, seated on a mountain near the river Moselle eight miles north east of Toul. Lon. 6. 5 E. Lat. 48. 45 N.

LIVERPOOL, a large, flourishing, and populous town of England, in the county of Lancaster, situated at the influx of the river Mersey into the sea, 18 miles west of Warrington, and 203 north-west of London. Long. 2. 54 W. Lat. 53. 23 N. This town has so much increased in trade since the commencement of the last century, that it is now the greatest sea-port in England except London, having exceeded Bristol considerably of late years. The merchants trade to all parts of the world except Turkey, and the East Indies; but the most beneficial trade is to Guinea and the West Indies, by which many of them have acquired very large fortunes.

Liverpool, during the last war, carried on more foreign trade than any town in England; and such is the state of it at this time, that there are more than three thousand vessels cleared from that port in one year to different parts of the world. Here are several manufactories for China-ware, and pot-houses which make very fine ware, some salt-works, glass-houses, and upwards of 50 breweries, from some of which large quantities of malt liquor are sent abroad. Many of the buildings are formed in the most elegant manner; but the old streets are narrow; a defect which will soon be removed, as the corporation have lately obtained an act of parliament for the improvement of the town,