or rebellion, or to awaken the public mind to a consciousness of some great abuse or desirable reform. It may be a systematic agitation, an organized electoral campaign, or the organization and development of a political party. It includes the activity of all political cliques, clubs, rings, and "machines." As applied to the preferred distinction of the community, and the preferred type of citizen, it includes all efforts to favour one type of conduct and character at the expense of others, by means of public opinion, or of private penalties and rewards, including discrimination, patronage, economic coercion, and ecclesiastical disfavours.

The state engages in aggressive and defensive operations with reference to the acquisition or protection of territory, the development or conservation of religion and the arts, the creation, maintenance, or overthrow of institutions, and the maintenance of public order. It endeavours to achieve the preferred distinction of the community by means of a formulated policy, carried out through the agency of the legislature, the executive, and the courts. It represses certain social types by bringing the military power, the law, or ecclesiastical penalties to bear upon them. It cultivates other types by means of educational undertakings, and by public favour.

The Policies of Cooperation

The highest development of coöperation is seen in the formulation of certain great Policies through deliberation upon the composition, the character, and the circumstances of the community, and in efforts, both public and voluntary, to carry them to realization.

These policies may broadly be classified as Internal and

External. Internal policies have for their object the achievement of certain relations or conditions among the members of a social group—a class, a race, or a people. External policies have for their object the achievement of certain relations between one social group—a class, a race, or a people and another.

Internal Policies. In the historical experience of mankind, three great groups of internal policies may be discovered. These are, namely, Policies of Unity, Policies of Liberty, and Policies of Equality.

cern.

1. Policies of Unity aim to perfect the cohesion, the homogeneity, the solidarity of the group. If the group is a nation, the amalgamation of blood is watched with interest, and the process of mental assimilation with yet more conLaws are enacted, or edicts promulgated, to hasten on the change. One language must be spoken throughout the community. One religious faith must be embraced by all. One consistent economic policy must be followed. One standard of conduct and of legality must be established for all citizens. If the group is a voluntary organization, like a religious denomination, a trade union, or a political party, an attempt is made to persuade, or to compel all its members to believe the same things, and to conduct themselves in like ways. A creed, a body of rules, or a platform is imposed, and orthodoxy, or regularity, is insisted upon as a primary obligation.

Policies of Unity: The Counsel of Haman

And Haman said unto king Ahasuerus, There is a certain people scattered abroad and dispersed among the peoples in all the provinces of thy kingdom; and their laws are diverse from those of every people; neither keep they the king's laws: therefore it is not for the king's

profit to suffer them. If it please the king, let it be written that they be destroyed: and I will pay ten thousand talents of silver into the hands of those that have the charge of the king's business, to bring it into the king's treasuries. And the king took his ring from his hand, and gave it unto Haman the son of Hammedatha the Agagite, the Jews' enemy. And the king said unto Haman, The silver is given to thee, the people also, to do with them as it seemeth good to thee.

Esther, Chap. iii. 8-11.

Authoritative Discipline in Sparta

One, then, of the Rhetras was, that their laws should not be written; another is particularly levelled against luxury and expensiveness, for by it it was ordained that the ceilings of their houses should only be wrought by the axe, and their gates and doors smoothed only by the saw.

In order to the good education of their youth (which, as I said before, he thought the most important and noblest work of a lawgiver), he went so far back as to take into consideration their very conception and birth, by regulating their marriages. . . Those who continued bachelors were in a degree disfranchised by law; for they were excluded from the sight of those public processions in which the young men and maidens danced naked, and, in wintertime, the officers compelled them to march naked themselves round the market place, singing as they went a certain song to their own disgrace, that they justly suffered their punishment for disobeying the laws. Moreover, they were denied that respect and observance which the younger men paid their elders; . .

Nor was it in the power of the father to dispose of the child as he thought fit; he was obliged to carry it before certain triers at a place called Lesche; these were some of the elders of the tribe to which the child belonged; their business it was carefully to view the infant, and, if they found it stout and well made, they gave order for its rearing, and allotted to it one of the nine thousand shares of land above mentioned for its maintenance, but, if they

found it puny and ill-shaped, ordered it to be taken to what was called the Apothetæ, a sort of chasm under Taygetus; as thinking it neither for the good of the child itself, nor for the public interest, that it should be brought up, if it did not, from the very outset, appear made to be healthy and vigorous.

After they were twelve years old, they were no longer allowed to wear any under garment; they had one coat to serve them a year; their bodies were hard and dry, with but little acquaintance of baths and unguents; these human indulgences they were allowed only on some few particular days in the year. They lodged together in little bands. upon beds made of the rushes which grew by the banks of the river Eurotas, which they were to break off with their hands without a knife; if it were winter, they mingled some thistledown with their rushes, which it was thought had the property of giving warmth. By the time they were come to this age, there was not any of the more hopeful boys who had not a lover to bear him company. The old men, too, had an eye upon them, coming often to the grounds to hear and see them contend either in wit or strength with one another, and this as seriously and with as much concern as if they were their fathers, their tutors, or their magistrates; so that there scarcely was any time or place without some one present to put them in mind of their duty, and punish them if they had neglected it. .

Their discipline continued still after they were full-grown men. No one was allowed to live after his own fancy; but the city was a sort of camp, in which every man had his share of provisions and business set out, and looked upon himself not so much born to serve his own ends as the interest of his country.

PLUTARCH, Lives of Illustrious Men, translated by A. H. CLOUGH, 34, 35, 36, 39.

Pericles' Disposition of Troublesome Elements

For, indeed, there was from the beginning a sort of concealed split, or seam, as it might be in a piece of iron, marking the different popular and aristocratical tendencies;

but the open rivalry and contention of these two opponents made the gash deep, and severed the city into the two parties of the people and the few. And so Pericles, at that time more than at any other, let loose the reins to the people, and made his policy subservient to their pleasure, contriving continually to have some great public show or solemnity, some banquet, or some procession or other in the town to please them, coaxing his countrymen like children, with such delights and pleasures as were not, however, unedifying. Besides that every year he sent out threescore galleys, on board of which there went numbers of the citizens, who were in pay eight months, learning at the same time and practising the art of seamanship.

He sent, moreover, a thousand of them into the Chersonese as planters, to share the land among them by lot, and five hundred more into the isle of Naxos, and half that number to Andros, a thousand into Thrace to dwell among the Bisaltæ, and others into Italy, when the city Sybaris, which now was called Thurii, was to be peopled. And this he did to ease and discharge the city of an idle, and, by reason of their idleness, a busy, meddling crowd of people; and at the same time to meet the necessities and restore the fortunes of the poor townsmen, and to intimidate, also, and check their allies from attempting any change, by posting such garrisons, as it were, in the midst of them. PLUTARCH, Lives of Illustrious Men, translated by A. H. CLOUGH,

III.

Of Him Who fails to Attend the Gemot

If any one [when summoned] fail to attend the "gemōt" thrice; let him pay the king's "oferhyrnes," and let it be announced seven days before the "gemōt" is to be. But if he will not do right, nor pay the "oferhyrnes"; then let all the chief men belonging to the "burh" ride to him, and take all that he has, and put him in "borh." But if any one will not ride with his fellows, let him pay the king's "oferhyrnes." And let it be announced at the "gemōt," that the "frith" be kept toward all that the king wills to be within the "frith," and theft be foregone by his life and by all that he has. And he who for the "wites" will not