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was not abolished till about the middle of tres officii pałatıni), who formed a kind of the seventh century, till which time the nobility, and as the constitutional counlaws of the Visigoths and Romans con- sellors of the king, usurped the rights tinued different. But the weakness of of popular representatives, remained no the Visigoths became manifest as soon as longer the first class in the state : the old they came in contact with the Franks on mode of choosing the king, which had the Loire, when the Catholic Clovis (q. v.), thrown the election into their hands, was on pretence that it was unjust to let thë altered in favor of the bishops ; and under heretic Visigoths possess the fairest portion weak kings, who often attained the crown of Gaul, attacked the peaceful Alaric, and by artifices of the priests, or solicited abdefeated him at Rouglé, in 507. The solution and justification from the clergy, Franks obtained possession, without re- on account of the usurpation which they sistance, of most of the cities in southern had committed, or the oaths which they Gaul, and the kingdom of the Visigoths had violated, they found it easy to place would have been in great danger, had not themselves at the head of the state, and Theodoric (9. " ), king of the Ostrogoths, to procure exemption from all public undertaken its defence. While guardian burdens. This prevailing influence was of the Visigothic prince, his grandson, he especially visible in the ecclesiastical embraced the favorable opportunity to councils, which, in previous times, had make himself master of a part of the ter- discussed merely matters of doctrine or ritories still belonging to the Visigoths in church discipline, but, immediately after southern Gaul; and, after a long separation the conversion of the sovereign, began to of the two nations, there existed, for a mingle with spiritual affairs matters of a time, an intimate connexion of the Ostro- political character. When the clergy had goths and Visigoths. After his death, once established their political influence, dissensions soon arose among the Visi- they could, without reluctance, allow the goths, and the pernicious influence of the secular grandees, who came with the king difference of religion between the Arian to the councils, to take part in the delibVisigoths and the Catholic provincials, erations, the more particularly as they who were sometimes tolerated, and some- could always be sure of outvoting them ; times persecuted, became more and more and, as early as 633, the regulation was evident. The kingdom of the Visigoths made, that those secular grandees alone arose again with new energy, under the should be admitted, who should be probold and intelligent Leovigild (568—586), nounced worthy of the honor, by the who totally subdued the Suevi, improved bishops. The internal disturbances, which the laws, limited the power of the nobles, the excessive power of the clergy promade Toledo the royal residence, and duced or favored, facilitated the conquest tried to render the regal power heredita- of the country by the Saracens, who were ry. His equally celebrated son, Reccared, settled on the north coast of Africa. As became a convert, in 589, to the Catholic early as the year 675, the Mohammedans faith ; upon which the divisions of the began their attempts to settle in Spain, people ceased, and Goths and Spaniards encouraged by the factions which conbecame one nation. His conversion had vulsed the Visigoths, and which, during the most important influence on the char- the reign of the weak Roderic, enabled acter of the government. Scarcely had them to execute their project. The Goths the Catholic faith become the established were defeated, in 711, at Xeres de la Fronreligion, when the clergy, who had be- tera; the king was slain, and the Saracens come accustomed, during their former spread themselves over the greatest part state of oppression, to adhere firmly to- of the country. (See Spain.) The regether, acquired a predominant influence, mainder of the Goths, who, after the such as they obtained in no other Germanic downfall of the empire, had fled to the nation, and constituted a hierarchy, totally mountains of Asturia and Galicia, foundindependent of the Roman papal author- ed there new kingdoms, in which the ity. The Arian bishops had lived quietly constitutions of the Visigoths were in in their dioceses, and had no influence part retained, and which, when the deon the public administration ; but the scendants of the Goths broke forth from Catholic bishops strove after an active their fastnesses, and wrested from the participation in public affairs, in order to Moorish settlers one tract after another, render secure the authority which their finally gave rise to the kingdoms of Spain church had obtained. The grandees of and Portugal. The traces of the pubthe kingdom, the secular public ministers lic institutions of the Visigoths were and officers of the court (called viri illus- preserved longest in the laws, as the Christians, on leaving the mountains, ject, under such circumstances as to debrought with them those by which they ceive the senses. Thus, in regard to the had been governed. The most ancient first, it may be remarked that, in consecollection of Spanish laws, the Fuero quence of an extraordinary impression juzgo, or Forum Judicum, is drawn from upon the brain, through the medium of the ancient laws of the Visigoths; and the circulation of the blood, sensations many of them have been retained to the are greatly increased in intensity, and present day in the provincial law of Cas- ideas in vividness, and that emotions are tile and Catalonia. -The liturgy of the produced corresponding, in intensity, to Visigoths, which was established by the the acuteness of the sensations, and the assembly of Toledo, in 633, for the pur- vividness of the ideas. Then, again, the pose of introducing into all the churches effect of a disordered state of the physa uniform mode of worship, long survived ical functions is to disturb the order of the downfall of the kingdom. This offi- the succession of ideas, or to influence cium Gothicum, as it was termed, which the velocity of their succession (procontained many rites and forms that had ducing indistinctness of perception, conbeen used in the Spanish church from the fusion of thought, inaccuracy of judgearliest period of Christianity, maintained ment, and, of course, a disregard to inconitself in spite of all the efforts of the gruities), or to increase the vivacity of popes to introduce the Roman liturgy; ideas. The same effects may be proand so violent were the disputes to which duced by a diseased state of the body itthis gave rise, that an attempt was made self, or by violent mental excitements, into adjust the quarrel by duel and fire- fluencing the physical functions, which, ordeal. Even after the Roman liturgy in turn, react upon the mind. These had been introduced into Castile, as it principles will be found to account for had previously been into Arragon, several many spectral illusions of which we have churches in Toledo nevertheless retained authentic accounts. In some instances, their old usages. The Spanish Christians it is a transient madness; in others, a living under the dominion of the Moors, permanent mania, under the influence of and styled Mozarabians, adhered still which the patient labored. In general, longer to the Gothic liturgy, which was it will be observed that the images which therefore called officium Mozarabicum. constitute the subject of spectral illuCardinal Ximenes caused the missal and sions assume the form of figures which breviary of this liturgy to be printed. have been rendered familiar to the mind, The Spanish language also still preserves, and which have made strong impresin some words, the remains of the Gothic, sions upon it. The sights seen bear a although the Visigoths, after the conquest strict relation to the character of the of the peninsula of the Pyrenees, adopted seer, and of the superstitions of the age the language of the Romans. There is a and country in which he lived. Thus Geschichte der Westgothen, by John Asch- the intelligent and philosophical Nicolai bach (Frankfort, 1827).

(q. v.) saw nothing but men and women, Vision. (See Optics.)

horses, dogs and birds in their natural VISIONS. Ghosts, phantoms, appari- form. The illusions of the superstitious tions, spectres, spirits, --for the vocabulary consist of demons or angels, and all sorts of superstition is rich in terms, or, in of fantastic shapes, benign or malignant, philosophical language, spectral illusions, according to the peculiar disposition or have, in some ages, played an important state of mind of the seer.

** Ghosts," part in the machinery of society; nor can says Grose, “commonly appear in the it be said that they have yet been laid by saine dress they wore when living, though the voice of that great exorciser, knowl- they are sometimes clothed all in white; edge. The guilty conscience still evokes but that is chiefly the church-yard ghosts, the avenging spirits, and the disordered who have no particular business, but action of the physical functions is some- seem to appear pro bono publico, or to times mistaken for the operation of exter- scare drunken rustics from tumbling over nal ohjects upon the senses. All appear- their graves. Dragging chains is not the ances of this nature may be classed under fashion of English ghosts, chains and the two heads of mental illusions, and op- black vestments being chiefly the accoutical illusions, the former comprising those trements of foreign spectres seen in arbicases in which the spectral appearances trary governments: dead or alive, Engare produced by the disordered state of lish spirits are free.” Doctor Abercromthe mind, and the latter, those occasion- bie (Inquiries concerning the Intellectual ed by the presence of some external ob- Powers, 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1831), in treat

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ing of spectral illusions, refers them to particularly Hibbert's Philosophy of Apthe following heads:-1. False percep- paritions (Edinburgh, 1824), tions, or impressions made upon the VISTULA (Polish, Visla; German senses only, in which the mind does not Weichsel), a river about 500 miles long, participate. 2. Real dreams, though the navigable from Cracow, which rises in the person was not, at the time, sensible of principality of Teschen, in Austrian Sihaving slept, nor, consequently, of having lesia, on the northern declivity of the dreamed. “A person under the influence Carpathian mountains, flows round the of some strong mental impression, drops territory of Cracow and Gallicia, through asleep for a few seconds, perhaps without the kingdom of Poland, towards the northbeing sensible of it; some scene or per- west, passes through West Prussia, and son connected with the impression ap- divides into two branches, of which the pears in a dream, and he starts up under eastern, the Nogat, empties, about two the conviction that it was a spectral appear- and a half miles from Elbing, into the ance. 3. Intense mental conceptions, so Frische Haff; the western divides again, strongly impressed upon the mind as, for about nine miles above Dantzic, into two the moment, to be believed to have a real branches, of which the western flows existence. This takes place when, along into the Baltic at Weichselmunde, near with the mental emotion, the individual is Dantzic; the eastern, by many small chanplaced in circumstances in which exter- nels, into the Frische Haff. The Vistula nal impressions are very slight, as soli- contains numerous and excellent fish : its tude, faint light, and quiescence of body. navigation is very important, as the prodIt is a state bordering closely upon dream- ucts of Poland—wood, grain, &c. --are ing, though the vision occurs while the transported on it to Dantzic, on the Balperson is in the waking state. 4. Errone- tic. The canal of Bromberg connects ous impressions, connected with bodily the Vistula with the Oder. (q. v.) Several disease, generally disease in the brain. navigable rivers empty into the Vistula. The illusions, in these cases, arise in a VITALIANS. (See Apollinarians.) manner strictly analogous to dreaming, VITELLIUS, Aulus, a Roman, raised by and consist of some former circumstances his vices to the throne, was descended. recalled to the mind, and believed, for from one of the most illustrious families a time, to have a real and present exist- of Rome. The greatest part of his youth ence. The diseases, in connexion with was spent at Capreæ, where he labored which they arise, are generally of an apo- to gratify the vicious propensities of Tiplectic or inflammatory character, some- berius. He passed through all the offices times epileptic; and they are very fre- of the state, and gained the soldiery by quert in the affection called delirium tre- donations and liberal promises. He was mens, produced by a continued use of in- at the head of the Roman legions in Gertoxicating liquors. Under each of these many when Otho was proclaimed empeheads, the author states a number of in- ror, and was likewise invested with the teresting facts, illustrative of the general purple by his soldiers. He accepted the theory. The second species of illusions, office, and instantly marched against or optical illusions, are occasioned by the Otho. After losing three battles, he was state of the atmosphere, producing a re- successful in the plains between Mantua flection or unequal refraction of light, and Cremona. He now gave himself up such as the famous gigantic figure called to luxury and debauchery. He feasted the spectre of the Brocken, aërial troops four or five times a day, and was often of horsemen, spectre ships, &c. (see Op- seen to make himself vomit, to begin his tics), of which phenomena the reader will repast afresh. Above thirty million find descriptions and explanations in dollars were spent in maintaining his taBrewster's Natural Magic (London, 1832). ble in the space of four months. This Illusions are often also produced by the extravagance soon raised the indignation appearance of objects imperfectly 'seen of the people. Vespasian was proclaimin a dim light, and by electric phenome- ed emperor by the army, and his minister na, when the credulous and terrified ob- Primus was sent to destroy the imperial

“sees, or thinks he sees," mon- glutton. Vitellius concealed himself unstrous shapes flitting around and glaring der the bed of the porter of his palace; upon him.-For further information on but he was discovered, and dragged nathis interesting chapter in the history of ked through the streets, with his hands human weakness, see Scott's Letters on tied behind his back. After suffering the Demonology and Witchcraft ; Thacher's greatest insults from the populace, his Essay on Demonology (Boston, 1831); and head was cut off and fixed to a pole, and

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his mutilated body dragged with a hook and thrown into the Tiber, A. D. 69, after a reign of one year, except twelve days. VITERBO (anciently Volturna); a town of Italy, in the States of the Church, capital of a delegation, formerly capital of the Patrimonio; thirty-four miles northwest of Rome; lon. 12° 6' E.; lat. 42° 25 N.; population, 12,600. This city is a bishop's see, and lies in a beautiful and fertile valley the streets, for the greater part, are broad and well paved, the houses good, but thinly peopled, though the number of churches, convents and hospitals is not less than sixty-nine. Four popes lie interred in the cathedral. Not far from the city is a warm mineral spring.

VITRIOL, GREEN. (See Copperas.) VITRIOL, OIL OF; the old name for sulphuric acid. (See Sulphur.)

VITRUVIUS POLLIO, Marcus; a celebrated writer on architecture, who is supposed to have flourished in the time of Julius Cæsar and Augustus, and of whose parentage and place of nativity no certain knowledge can be obtained. The most probable opinion is, that he was born at Formia, a city of Campania, now called Mola di Gaeta. He plainly appears to have been liberally educated; and that he travelled for information and improvement, we learn from his writings. The only public edifice which he mentions as being constructed from his designs, is a basilica at Fano. He wrote, at an advanced age, his work De Architectura Lab. X, which he dedicated to Augustus, under whose reign he had held the of fice of inspector of the military machines. This treatise was first printed at Venice, 1497, folio; and, among modern editions, the most valuable are those of Schneider (Leipsic, 1808, 4 vols., 8vo.), and of Stratico (Ettingen, 1828, 4 vols.). An English translation of the work of Vitruvius, with a commentary, by William Newton, appeared in 1771, folio, republished 1791, 2 vols., folio; and a new translation, by W. Wilkins, with an Introduction, containing an Historical View of the Rise and Progress of Architecture among the Greeks, was published in 1812, folio.

VITTORIA, or VICTORIA, Fernandez Guadalupe, late president of the Mexican republic, was born at Durango, where his father was a considerable land-holder, in 1790, and had just finished his studies for the bar, in the capital, when the revolution broke out (1810). He immediately espoused the cause of his native land against the Spaniards, and entered the

service under Morelos as a volunteer. In 1814, he was appointed captain-general in the province of Vera Cruz-a very important post, as the whole communication with Europe was through the ports of that province. Here Vittoria distinguished himself by his activity and energy, and soon became the terror of the Spanish troops, maintaining an incessant and destructive guerilla war. Notwithstanding the great efforts of the royal commanders, and their great numerical superiority, he sustained a struggle for two years, at the end of which time, his successive losses, and the disastrous state of the revolutionary party in the country, left him without a single follower. Determined not to yield to the Spaniards, and refusing their offers of pardon, promotion and reward, he retired alone into the mountains of the province, with nothing but his sword. For upwards of six months, he was pursued by 1000 men, in small detachments, with such ardor and vigilance that his escapes were often almost miraculous; and wherever it was found that his wants had been relieved, the whole village was immediately burnt to the ground. In this way he was reduced to such extremities, that he often went four or five days without taking any thing but water: for thirty months, he never tasted bread, nor saw a human being. When Mr. Ward, author of Mexico (2d ed., London, 1829), from which we have taken this account, first saw him, in 1823, he was unable to eat above once in twenty-four or even thirty-six hours. On the breaking out of the revolution of 1821, he was found, by a former follower, who came in search of him, but who, far from recognising his commander in the naked phantom, emaciated, and covered with hair, which stood before him, took to flight, and was recalled only by the sounds of his voice. Vittoria, on receiving intelligence of the new state of things, descended to the low country, and immediately found himself at the head of a body of republican troops, attracted by his old reputation. He now joined Iturbide; but, as his wishes were set on the establishment of a liberal government, and not on a change of masters, he was again forced to retire to the mountains, when that general carried into successful execution his ambitious projects, and only reappeared again to give the signal for the overthrow of the emperor. (See Iturbide, and Santa Aña.) On the expulsion of the emperor, and the establishment of the new constitution, in 1824, Vittoria was chosen

the first president of the new republic, general Maurice Matthieu of Barceand continued to administer the execu- lona. tive government during the term of four Virus's Dance, St., or CHOREA SANCyears, when Pedraza was chosen his suc- TI Viti (from xopera, a dance), is a spascessor. (See Mexico, and Pedraza.) modic or convulsive disease, in which the

VITTORIA, BATTLE OF, was fought on muscles of the extremities and other parts June 21, 1813. In the middle of Februa- are thrown into various involuntary mory, 1813, the disastrous state of the French tions, and perform, in an irregular manarmy in Russia was made known to the ner, those motions which are dictated by French troops in Spain, with orders to the will. The approach of the disease is send whatever forces could be spared to commonly slow, and is indicated by a loss Germany. 30,000 troops set off immedi- of the usual vivacity, by a variable and ately for that country. Their departure, often ravenous appetite, a swelling and and Marmont's defeat in the year previous, hardness in the lower belly, in most cases, obliged the French to give up Madrid, but, in some, a lank and soft belly, and, in and to retire behind the Ebro. Welling- general, a constipated state of the bowels. ton followed, and passed the Ebro, June Slight, irregular, involuntary motions are 15. At last, the two armies met on the soon observed, especially of the muscles great plain of Vittoria (a town in Alava, of the face, which after a while become lon. 2° 41' W., lat. 42° 47' N., with a more violent. These convulsive motions population of 6500, much occupied in vary considerably. The muscles of the the manufacture of sword-blades). The extremities, and of the face, those moving French were commanded by king Joseph the lower jaw, the head and the trunk of and Jourdan. They had on their left a the body, are, at different times and in difchain of gentle hills, on their right Vitto- ferent instances, affected by it. In this ria, in front the rivulet of Zadora. On state, the patient does not walk steadily : the 20th, Wellington united all his col- bis gait resembles jumping or starting : umns, and ordered general Hill, on the he sometimes cannot walk, and seems 21st, to pass over the Zadora at day- palsied ; nor can he perform the common break, and to attack the centre of the motions with the arms. In a word, when French. He was repulsed, but the strug- be wishes to be at rest, the muscles are gle was obstinate; and general Graham, perpetually moving, and distorting the in the mean time, turned the right wing limbs, face and trunk; and when any of the French, and came upon their rear, motion is attempted by the will, it is perso that they were cut off from the road to formed irregularly and with difficulty, afBilboa, and forced to retreat towards Pam- ter several efforts. The convulsive mopeluna, which they did in the greatest dis- tions sometimes continue even in sleep. order. They had been so certain of vic- In the progress of the disease, articulation tory, that little provision had been made becomes impeded, and is frequently comfor the case of defeat; and many of the pletely suspended. Deglutition is also wives of the officers, the whole of Jo- occasionally performed with difficulty. seph's baggage, &c. fell into the hands of The eye loses its lustre and intelligence ; the English. 15,000 dead and wounded the countenance is pale and expressive of lay on the field of battle ; 3000 French languor. This disease attacks both sexes, were taken prisoners. The English took but chiefly those who are of a weak con151 cannons, and 400 wagons with mili- stitution, or whose health and vigor have tary stores, and the military chest. Their been impaired by confinement, or by the booty was immense. General Clauzel want of sufficient or proper nourishment. arrived the day after the battle, with two It appears most commonly from the eighth divisions, at Vittoria, and, with great skill, to the fo'irteenth year. Many causes have retreated towards Saragossa, so that the been assigned for this disorder, such as pursuit was less destructive than it would worms in the alimentary canal, and the otherwise have been, and the remains repulsion or drying up of cutaneous erupof the French army were enabled to tions; also rheumatisins, acute fevers, disrally at the foot of the Pyrenees, where eases of the stomach, the use of mercury, Soult put them again in order, and strove terror, and other strong mental impresto oppose Wellington, who was prevented sions. The remedies which have been also, by other circumstances, from follow- adopted belong to the two classes of ing up his victory as he could have tonics and evacuants. The connexion wished; since Suchet, after the unsuccess- of the name of St. Vitus with this disease ful attempt of general Murray on Tarra- seems to have originated, during the days gona, kept possession of Valencia, and of fanaticism and superstition, in the sev

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