near the skirts of it, had the world totally with relaxation, is properly termed spasm. to begin again. Who could have im- When the contractions alternate with relagined that a breastwork which had axation, and are frequently and preterstood for ages should at length give way? naturally repeated, they are called convulor that these subterraneous floods, which sions. Spasms are distinguished by auhad been bedded in darkness since the thors into clonic and tonic spasms. In memory of man, should ever have burst 'clonic spasms, which are the true confrom their black abode? This dreadful vulsions, the contractions and relaxations inundation, though the first shock of it are alternate, as in epilepsy; but in tonic was most tremendous, continued still spasms, the member remains rigid, as in spreading for many weeks, till it covered locked jaw. (See Convulsion, and Telthe whole plain, an area of 500 acres, and, anus.) like molten lead poured into a mould, Spásmodic CHOLERA. (See Cholera, filled all the hollows of it, lying, in some in this Appendix.) parts, thirty or forty feet deep, reducing SPECTRES. (See Visions.) the whole to one level surface." (Gilpin's SPHENE. (See Titanium.) Observations on the Mountains and Lakes SPINNING FRAME. (See Cotton Manuof Cumberland.)- In order to clear the ara- facture.) ble and pasture land of this accumulation SPIRITS. (See Visions.) of moss, Mr. Wilson, from Yorkshire, SPIRITS, FAMILIAR. (See Familiar adopted a very ingenious plan. He formed, Spirits.) in the higher grounds, two large reservoirs, SPURZHEIM, Gaspard. Since the pubwhich he filled with water, the whole lication of the eleventh volume, which force of which he directed against a contained an imperfect notice of this dislarge knoll in front of Netherby house, tinguished man, he has visited this counand afterwards against the accumulated try, and paid the great debt of nature in masses, which he succeeded in washing the midst of us. He arrived in the U. away into tủe channel of the Esk. Doc- States in August, 1832, with the intention tor Graham, of Netherby, had sent for a of remaining about two years in the person to survey the ground, and estimate country, lecturing in the principal towns, the expense of removing the moss in the and visiting the different tribes of Inordinary way. The estimate was £1300; dians within our territory. He began his but while the matter was under consider- lectures in Boston, where he delivered ation, Wilson suggested that it might be one course on the anatomy of the brain, done cheaper ; and by the method which designed principally for medical men. He we have mentioned, he effected it for less bad nearly, likewise, completed two popthan £20.—Another account of the erup- ular courses of lectures on pbrenology, tion of this moss, by. Mr. J. Walker, of one in Cambridge, and the other in BosMoffat, will be found in the Philosophical ton, when death interrupted his labors, Transactions for 1772, vol. Ixii, p. 123. Nov. 10, 1832. From the beginning of According to Mr. Walker, the mossy ridge his popular course in Boston, the number was reduced no less than twenty-five of his hearers continually increased, feet; but what is not easily explained, he and, towards the latter part of the time, makes the eruption take place on the six. had become so great that it was found teenth of December, 1772, whereas Gilpin necessary to change the room in which places it on the thirteenth of November, they were commenced for a larger hall. 1771. Mr. Walker mentions the remark- Doctor Spurzheim had, during his short able case of a cow, the only one, out of residence in Boston, won the affection eight in the same byre, that was saved. of a large number of bis hearers, by the It had stood sixty hours up to the neck urbanity and gentleness of his manners, in mud and water; and when it was and the benevolence and enlarged philantaken out, it did not refuse to eat, but it thropy of his sentiments and disposition, would not taste water, nor even look at it, while his elevated morality and scientific without manifest signs of horror. It was acquirements commanded the general soon, however, reconciled to it, and was respect. His funeral obsequies were, then likely to recover.

therefore, solemnized in one of the SORBETTO. (See Sherbet.)

churches of that city; and a eulogy was Spanish Black. (See Oak.)

pronounced over his remains by professor Spasm (from otaw, to draw); a cramp, Follen, of Harvard university. His body, or convulsion. An involuntary contrac- which had been embalmed, was depostion of the muscular fibres, or that state ited in such a situation that it might be of the contraction of muscles which is transmitted to his friends in Europe, if not spontaneously disposed to alternate desired, with the intention that it should

otherwise be permanently entombed at and Spurzheim went to Paris, where Mount Auburn, and that a monument they demonstrated their theory of the should be erected over it at the public brain, in the presence of Cuvier, and beexpense. The following works of doctor fore many other distinguished men. CuSpurzheim have been republished in vier, at first, expressed his approbation Boston :-Phrenology, or the Doctrine of of the general features of the new docthe Mental Phenomena (2 vols.); Outlines trine, but, in a report to the institute on of Phrenology; Elementary Principles the subject, in 1808, spoke of it with less of Education; and Philosophical Cate- favor. In Paris, they published their chism of the Natural Laws of Man. great work on the Anatomy and PhysiFrom doctor Follen's Funeral Oration ology of the Nervous System (1810), and (published in Boston, in 1832) we extract continued to lecture and labor together the following additional notices of doc- till 1813, when Spurzheim went to Eng. tor Spurzheim's life:—He was the son land, and began to lecture in London. of a farmer, and received his classical Mr. Abernethy acknowledged the superieducation at the college of Treves, being ority of his anatomical demonstration destined, by his friends, for the profession over the previous mode of dissecting the of theology. In consequence of the war, brain. After lecturing in several cities of in 1795, the students of that college were England and Ireland, doctor Spurzheim dispersed, and Spurzheim went to Vienna. went to Edinburgh, where he was parHere he devoted himself to the study of ticularly desirous of exhibiting his demmedicine, and became the pupil, and onstrations and explaining his doctrines, afterwards the associate, of doctor Gall, in consequence of the appearance of an who was at that time established as a abusive article on phrenology, in the Edphysician at Vienna. (See our articles inburgh Review (June, 1815). During Gall

, and Phrenology, in the body of the the three years which he spent in Engwork.) It was bere, in 1800, thai Spurz- land, he published several of his works heim first attended a private course which on phrenology, among which was one doctor Gall had repeated from time to under the title of the Physiognomical time, during the four preceding years, in Systen. In 1817, he returned to Paris, order to explain, to a select audience, his where he gave lectures on the anatomy, new theory of the organs and functions physiology and pathology of the brain, of the brain. The dissection of the brain and also devoted himself to the practice itself still remained very imperfect until of medicine; and, in 1821, became doctor 1804, when Spurzheim became his asso- of medicine of the university of Paris. ciate, and undertook especially the ana. In 1825, he again visited England, where tomical department. From that time, in he lectured to crowded audiences; and, their public as well as in private demon- in 1828, once more returned to Paris. stration of the brain, Spurzheim always There he again renewed his lectures; and made the dissections, and Gall explained he remained there till his visit to this them to the audience. The great interest country. excited by these lectures in Vienna, and Stars, Fixed. (See Fired Stars.) throughout. Germany, roused the fears STEENWYCK. (See Slenwyck.) of that inveterate enemy of all innova- STIRRUP. The ancients were tiops, the government of Austria. An acquainted with the use of this conveimperial decree, which prohibited all nient article of equestrian costume, the private lectures unless by special per- emperor Mauritius, who flourished toinission, silenced the two teachers, and wards the end of the sixth century, being induced them, in 1805, to quit Vienna. the first writer who makes mention of it, They travelled together through Germa- in bis Treatise on the Military Art. The ny, explaining and demonstrating their Roman youth were accustomed to leap physiological discoveries in the principal upon their horses sword or lance in hand. universities and cities, particularly in A jasper, explained by Winckelmann; a Berlin, Dresden, Halle and Munich. basso-rilievo, engraved by Roccheggiani; Their anatomical demonstrations excited, and the painting of a Greek vase, publish:every where, great interest and applause. ed in Millin's Recueil de Monumens, all The peculiar physiological doctrine on exhibit warriors mounting on horseback the organization of the brain being adapt- by the help of a cramp-iron attached to ed to various innate qualities of the mind, the pike or lance. Distinguished persons found many opposers, but also some and old men had servants to place them warm adherents, and gave rise to a great on their horses, and conquered sovereigns number of publications, in which the sub- were often coinpelled to perform this ofject was discussed. In the year 1807, Gall fice for their vanquishers. Caius Grac

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chus caused to be placed at certain dis- This great truth limits the size and moditances along the high roads, after the ex- fies the shape of most productions of naample of the Greeks, large stones to assist ture and of art,-of bills, trees, animals, the horsemen in mounting.

architectural or mechanical structures,&c. Stone, John Hoskins, governor of Ma- Hills. Very strong or cohesive materiryland, distinguished himself in the revo- al may form hills of sublime elevation, lution. In early life, and at an early peri- with very projecting cliffs and very lofty od of the war, he was first captain in the perpendicular precipices ; and such are celebrated regiment of Snuallwood. At seen, accordingly, where the hard granite the battles of Long Island, White Plains protrudes from the bowels of the earth, as and Princeton, he behaved with great in the Andes of America, the Alps of Eugallantry; and, at that of Germantown, he rope, the Himalayas of Asia, and the received a wound which disabled him for Mountains of the Moon in Central Africa the residue of his life. But he still exert- But material of inferior strength exhibits ed himself in the service of his country, more humble risings and more rounded as a member of the executive council of surfaces. The gradation is so striking Maryland, until 1794, when he was chosen and constant from granite mountains governor, and remained so for three years down to those of chalk, or gravel, or sand, (as long a time as was allowed by the that the geologist can generally tell the constitution). He died at Annapolis, in substance of which a hill is composed by 1804, leaving behind him the reputation the peculiarities of its shape. Even in of an honest and honorable man, an in- granite itself, which is the strongest of trepid soldier, and a liberal, hospitable and rocks, there is a limit to height and profriendly citizen.

jection; and, if an instance of either, STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. (The fol. much more remarkable than now remains lowing article is extracted from Amott's on earth, were by any chance to be proElements of Physics.] Strength depends duced again, the law which we are conon the magnitude, form and position of sidering would prune the monstrosity. bodies, as well as on the degree of cohesion The grotesque figures of rocks and moun. in the material.”—of similar bodies the tains seen in the paintings of the Chinese, largest is proportionally the weakest. Sup- or actually formed in miniature for their pose two blocks of stone left projecting gardens, to express their notions of perfrom a rock that has been hewn, of which fect sublimity and beauty, are caricatures blocks one is twice as long, and deep, and of nature, for which originals can never broad, as the other. . The larger one will have existed. Some of the smaller islands by no means support as much more in the Eastern ocean, however, and some weight at its end than the other, as it is of the mountains of the chains seen in the larger; and for two reasons: 1. In the voyage towards China, along the coasts of larger, each particle of the surface of at- Borneo and Palawan, exhibit, perbaps, tachment, in helping to bear the weight the very limits of possibility in singular of the block itself, has to support by its shapes. In the moon, where the weight cohesion twice as many particles beyond or gravity of bodies is less than on the it, in the double extent of projection, as a earth, on account of her smaller size, particle has to pport in the shorter mountains might be many times higher block; and, 2. both the additional sub- than on the earth ; and observation proves stance, and any thing appended at the that the lunar mountains are much higher outer extremity of the larger, are acting than ours. By the action of winds, rains, with a double lever advantage to break it, currents and frost upon the mineral masses that is, to destroy the cohesion. Hence, around us, there is unceasingly going on if any such projection be carried out very anundermining and wasting of supports, so far, it will break off or fall by its own that every now and then immense rocks, weight alone. What is thus true of a block or almost hills, are torn by gravity from supported at one end, is equally true of a the station which they have held since block supported at both ends, and, indeed, the earth received its present form, and of all masses, however supported, and of fall in obedience to the law now explained. whatever forms. That a large body, The size of vegetables, of course, is obetherefore, may have proportionate strength dient to the same law. We have no trees to a smaller, it must be made still thicker reaching a height of 300 feet, even when and more clumsy than it is made longer; perfectly perpendicular, and sheltered in and, beyond a certain limit, no proportions forests that have been upmolested from whatever will keep it together, in opposi- the beginning of time ; and oblique or tion merely to the force of its own weight. horizontal branches are kept with,in very

ocean.

narrow limits by the great strength re- have scarcely a hundredth part of the bulk quired to support them. The truth that, of the timbers of a ship ten times as long to have proper strength, the breadth or di- as the boat. A ship’s yard of ninety feet ameter in bodies must increase more quick- contains, perhaps, twenty times as much ly, than the length, is well illustrated hy wood as a yard of thirty feet, and, even the contrast existing between the delicate then, is not so strong in proportion. If ten and slender proportions of a young oak or men may do the work of a three-hunelm, while yet in the seedsman's nursery, dred-ton ship, many more than three and its sturdy form when it has braved times that number will be required to for centuries all the winds of heaven, and manage a ship three times as large. Very has become the monarch of the park or large ships, such as the two built in Canaforest.

da in the year 1825, which carried each Animals furnish other interesting illus- nearly 10,000 tons, are weak from their trations of this law. How massive and size alone; and the loss of these two clumsy are the limbs of the elephant, the first specimens of gigantic magnitude will rhinoceros, the heavy ox, compared with not encourage the building of others like the slender forms of the stag, antelope and them. greybound! And an animal much larger The degree in which the strength of than the elephant would fall to pieces structures is dependent on the form and from its own weight alone, unless its position of their parts, will be illustrated bones were made of much stronger ma- by considering the two cases of longituterials. Many have questioned whether dinal and transverse compression ; and the mammoth, or antediluvian elephant, the rule for giving strength will be found could have lived on dry land, or must to be, to cause the force tending to dehave been amphibious, that its great body stroy, to act, as equally as may be, on the might generally be borne up by water. whole resisting mass, at the same time, The whale is the largest of animals, but and with as little mechanical advantage as feels not its mighty weight because lying possible. In longitudinal compression, as constantly in the liquid support of the produced by a body on the top of a pillar,

A cat may fall with impunity the weight, while the support remains where an elephant or ox would be dashed straight, can only destroy the support by to pieces. The giants of the heathen my- crushing it in opposition to the repulsion thology could not have existed upon this and impenetrability of all its atoms. earth, for the reason which we are now Hence a very small pillar, if kept perfectly considering; although on our moon, straight, supports a very great weight; where, as already stated, weight is much but a pillar originally crooked, or beginless, such beings might be. În the plan- ning to bend, resists with only part of its et Jupiter, again, which is many times strength; for the whole weight above larger than the earth, an ordinary man is supported on the atoms of the concave from hence would be carrying, in the side only, which are therefore in greater simple weight of his body, a load suffi- danger of being overpressed and crushed, cient to crush the limbs which supported while those on the convex side, separated him. The phrase a little compact man, from their natural helpmates, are in the points to the fact that such a one is stronger opposite danger of being torn asunder. in proportion to his size than a taller man. The atoms near the centre, in such a case, The same law limits the height and are almost neutral, and might be absent breadth of architectural structures. In without the strength of the pillar being the houses of fourteen stories, which for- much lessened. Long pillars or supports merly stood under the castle of Edin- are weaker than short ones, because they burgh, there was danger of the superin- are more easily bent; and they are more cumbent wall crushing the foundation. easily bent because a very inconsiderable,

Roofs. Westminster hall approaches and therefore easily effected, yielding bethe limit of width that is possible without tween each two of many atoms, makes a very inconvenient proportions or central considerable bend in the whole; while in supports; and the domes of the churches a very short pillar, there can be no bendof St. Peter, in Rome, and St. Paul, in ing without a great change in the relatior London, are in the same predicament. of proximate atoms, and such as can be

Arches of a Bridge. A stone arch much effected only by great force. The weight larger than those of the magnificent or force bending any pillar may be conbridges in London, would be in danger of sidered as acting at the end of a long lecrushing and splintering its material. ver, reaching from the end of the pillar to

Ships. The ribs or timbers of a boat its centre, against the strength resisting at

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