mind, to which the influence of climate timely succor, the human frame yields may be joined ; but the most direful and under such privations ; idiocy succeeds lasting consequences frequently ensue. ferocity, or the sufferer dies raving mad. At first, every substance is ravenously Should the consequences not be fatal, devoured, to appease the cravings of lasting diseases are frequently occasioned hunger; every animal, the most loath- by the tone of the different organs being some reptiles, are welcome sustenance ; injured, sometimes incurably, and someand a paste is baked by the New Hol- times admitting palliation. It is evident, landers, composed of ants and worms, however, from the preceding observations, intermixed with the bark of trees. John that protracted fasting is not so destrucLery, who endured the extremity of tive as is commonly credited, and that famine in a voyage to Brazil, emphatically mankind may, without danger, remain declared, that a mouse was more prized in entire days destitute of food. Liquids the ship than an ox had been ashore; and are an effectual substitute for solids in he also informs us, that three or four preserving life; and drenching the body crowns were paid for each. The natives with salt or fresh water, or laving it coof New Caledonia swallow lumps of piously on the head, materially contributes earth to satisfy their hunger, and tie liga- in averting death by famine.See Philotures, continually increasing in tightness, sophical Transactions (1783); Memoirs of around the abdomen. They seem to do the Manchester Society for 1785 (vol. iii.); so with impunity, although the custom of Lerius, Navigationes in Braziliam ; Asiateating earth, in Java, which is done to ic Researches (vol. iv, p. 386); Syme's reduce personal corpulence, is slowly, but Embassy to Ava (p. 130); Mackay's Narinvariably destructive. Last of all, re- rative of the Shipwreck of the Juno; Ancourse is had to human flesh, instances nual Register for 1768, and 1783; Genof which have occurred in all countries tleman's Magazine (1789); Licetus, De of the habitable world, on occasion of his qui diu vivunt sine Alimento. famine from sieges, shipwreck, or the FELLATAHs. (See Foulahs.) failure of expected crops of grain. Dur- Feuillants. (See Jacobins.) ing this period, a material alteration is Fisher. (See Marten.) taking place in the mind : men become FISHKILL MOUNTAINS. (See Highwild and ferocious; they view each other lands of the Hudson.) with malevolence; they are quarrelsome, FitZWILLIAM, earl, was born in 1748. turbulent, and equally regardless of their At the age of twelve, he was sent to Eton own fate as of the safety of their neigh- school, where he was contemporary with bors; they actually resemble so many Charles Fox, lord Carlisle, and many beasts of prey. The sensations of hunger other conspicuous characters. His agreefrom protracted fasting are not alike in able and generous disposition endeared all; or it may be, that immediate languor him to his fellow scholars. He finished operates strongly on those by whom it is his studies at King's college, Cambridge. not so severely felt. But it is certain In 1770, soon after he came of age, he that, after a particular time, little inclina- married lady Charlotte Ponsonby ; a tion for food is experienced, though great union which united him more closely desire remains of quenching thirst. Cap- with the great whig families. Lord Fitztain Inglefield, of the Centaur, expresses william was decidedly hostile to the war his consolatory feelings on seeing one of against America. Under the administrahis companions perish, that dying of tion formed by his uncle, the marquis of hunger was not so dreadful as imagination Rockingham, he did not hold any office; had pictured. A survivor of that misera- but, in his senatorial capacity, he strenuble shipwreck, during which so many ously supported his friends. Till the year people hung twenty-three days in the 1793, his lordship continued to act with shrouds, observes, that he did not suffer the whigs. In 1794, lord Fitzwilliam much during the first three from want of was appointed president of the council, food ; that, after more had elapsed, he and in the following year was sent over was surprised to have existed so long, and as viceroy to Ireland. In that unhappy concluded that each succeeding day and misgoverned country, his presence would be his last. To these examples was fitted to produce great benefit. Holdmay be added that of captain Kennedy, ing one of the largest estates in Ireland, who considered it singular that, although he had always been popular there, for the he tasted neither meat nor drink during manner in which he treated his tenants. eight entire days, he did not feel the sen- He was, besides, known to be friendly to sations of hunger and thirst. Without the removal of the disabilities of the Cath

a

unfrequently broken in more than one perfect rest, and administer gentle laxapoint: they are generally fractured at the tives, until all inflammatory action is subcentre of their shafts, in which case the dued ; then to extend the limb to its natural fracture is more or less oblique ; whereas, length, or apply pasteboard splints dipped when it occurs near the extremes, it be- in warm water, with wooden ones extericomes more and more transverse; hence or to them, and fastened with tapes. This fractures have been divided into oblique latter is termed secondary setting, and is and transverse. The spongy bones are applicable to all the bones of the extremialso fractured transversely; the flat bones ties. in various directions, occasionally stellat- FRANCE SINCE 1830. The revolution of ed. A comminuted fracture occurs when July, 1830, had driven one dynasty from a bone is broken in different places at the throne of France, and seated another in once, and divided into several fragments its place : it had thus prevented a return or splinters. Longitudinal fractures also to the despotic government of the sevenoccur to the long cylindrical bones. Com- teenth century, and preserved the little plicated fractures are those accompanied share of liberty which the charter of with luxation, severe contusions, wound- 1814

had granted, with a sparing hand, to ed blood-vessels, pregnancy, gout, scurvy, the French nation. In theory, it sancrickets, fragilitas ossium, and syphilis, tioned the doctrine of the sovereignty of which diseases prevent the union of the people, and dealt a fatal blow to the the bones, and also cause them to be absurd notion of passive obedience; but very easily broken. Cold renders the in practice, it has done little towards rebones more fragile ; and they are also alizing the expectations of those who more brittle in old age. The superficial looked to see a monarchy surrounded are more exposed to fracture than the by republican institutions substituted for deep-seated bones; thus the clavicle is the charter government. The popular or more so than the os innominatum. Oth- revolutionary party, or “party of the ers, from their functions, are more expos- movement," as they have been called, deed; as, for example, the radius, from its manded that the work of reform should affording support to the carpus. Whena go on, and that more power should be fracture takes place, there is an effusion of lodged in the hands of the people; while blood from the vessels of the bone, peri- the conservatists, or juste milieu (proper osteum and contiguous soft parts; the medium) party, resisted all further change, muscles are violently excited ; the perios- and were desirous to go as little out of teum and truncated ends of the bone in- the way of legitimacy as possible. The flame; and, after the inflammation sub- majority of the chamber of deputies, sides, the vessels of the periosteum and which had been elected previous to the ends of the bone secrete callus, which is' revolution, was of the latter party, while an effusion of gelatin that is gradually the ministry was divided. Lafayette, converted into cartilage, and, lastly, inth Lamarque, Dupont de l'Eure, Odillonbone, by the secretion of phosphate of Barrot, &c., were among the most promilime, precisely in the same manner as the nent of the movement party : of these, forination and conversion of bone in the Lafayette was commander-in-chief of the fætus. During the inflammatory action, national guards, Dupont de l'Eure keepno diseased secretion takes place; nay, er of the seals, and Odillon-Barrot prefect even the healthy natural ones are more of the Seine. In the month of August, or less suspended, so that no advantage is four of the ex-ministers, Peyronnet, gained by setting a fracture immediately Guernon de Ranville, Chantelauze, and after the injury: on the contrary, this pri- Polignac, had been arrested ; and, on the mary setting, as it is termed, reexcites the 23d of September, a committee of the already spasmodic action of the muscles, chamber of deputies reported resolutions and, in nine cases out of ten, disappoints in favor of impeaching them of treathe hopes of the surgeon. Callus does not son, for having falsified the elections, harden for many days : in the adult, it be- arbitrarily changed the institutions of the gins generally about the tenth or twelfth kingdom, and excited civil war. After day ; Boyer, however, says that it is not two days' discussion, the report was acformed until between the twentieth and cepted : on the 30th, the impeachment seventieth day. The treatment of a sim- was sent up to the peers. The accused ple fractured bone is, to lay the limb in were then examined before a commission the easiest position for the patient; to ap- appointed by the peers for this purpose, ply leeches and anodyne fomentations or and the 15th of December was finally poultices; to put him on low diet, enjoin fixed upon for the trial of the impeachment. Meanwhile, a motion had been ministers, requiring the public functionamade and carried, in the chamber of dep- ries to vote for ministerial candidates, and uties, for an address to the king, praying of other written instruments, promising him to cause a bill (projet de loi) abolish- places in return for votes.

The charge ing capital punishments to be presented of having arbitrarily changed the institufor their consideration. The king, in his tions of the country, rested on the memoanswer, promised to comply with this rial to the king, and the ordinances themrequest, and expressed his disapprobation selves, the illegal and unconstitutional of inflicting capital punishments for politi- nature of which was undeniable. The cal offences. The people, who demand- use of military power to enforce them ed vengeance on their late oppressors, was equally a crime; and the charge of considered this in the light of a conspira- having excited civil war, and armed the cy between the executive and legislative, citizens against each other, was made out to screen them from their fate; and, on by evidence, showing that they had dithe 17th and 18th of October, mobs as- rected and approved of the employment sembled before the Palais Royal, uttering of the troops in Paris during the three threats against the government. The na- days. The 18th, 19th and 20th were octional guard and the troops of the line cupied by the speeches of the attorneywere both put in requisition to preserve general on the import of the evidence, tranquillity ; and the ministers felt them- and of the counsel for the prisoners, and selves obliged to abandon the intended by the reply of M. Montjau for the imbill. On occasion of the disturbances, peachment. The counsel for the accused Odillon-Barrot, prefect of the department were M. Martignac for prince Polignac, of the Seine, had issued a proclamation Sauzet for Chantelauze, Hennequin for exhorting the people to preserve order, in Peyronnet, and Crémieux for Guernon de which he designated the proposition of Ranville. Martignac contended, first, the ministers as unseasonable. The con- that, as the provision of the charter, servatists in the ministry resented the use which rendered the ministers responsible, of such language by a subordinate officer, also declared the person of the king inviand demanded his dismission. But the olable, and the nation had, by the acts of king, fearful of the consequences, would July, chosen to render the king personally not consent to this step; and baron Louis, responsible, and driven three generations the duke de Broglie, count Molé, and at once from the throne,—that article of Guizot, immediately quitted their offices. the charter was virtually annulled ; secThe new ministry was now composed of ondly, that the chamber of peers did not the mouvement party: Dupont retained constitute the court prescribed by the the seals, Sébastiani the navy department, charter, as two fifths of its members had and Gérard the war department, while been ejected by the accusers themselves; Laffitte succeeded to the post of president and, thirdly, that there was no law which of the council and minister of finance, applied to the case, the charter having marshal Maison to that of minister for only provided that laws should be passed foreign affairs, Montalivet to the ministry defining what should be esteemed treaof the interior, and Merilhou to that of son, which laws had never been enacted, public instruction. In a few days, how- and the articles of the penal code, which ever, general Gérard retired, and was re- described certain offences, supposed to be placed by marshal Soult; marshal Maison similar to those with which the prisoners was succeeded by Sébastiani; and the were charged, not designating them as inarine was given to count d'Argout. treasonable. The managers of the imThe trial of the ministers finally came on peachment asserted, in reply, that the Dec. 15, and lasted to the 21st, the court ministers had rendered themselves resitting every day from ten o'clock till sponsible by signing the ordinartces, and four. M. "Persil, the attorney-general, that the expulsion of the royal family was Bérenger, reporter of the committee who only one consequence of their crime, had prepared the bill, and Madiez de from the punishment of which the accomMontjau, were appointed on the part of plices could not expect to escape, on the the deputies to conduct the impeach- plea that the principals had been conment. The 15th, 16th and 17th were demned. On the 21st, the court found occupied in the opening of the charge by the prisoners guilty of treason, under the Bérenger, and the examination of wit- fifty-sixth article of the charter, by havnesses. The evidence of the first charge, ing countersigned the ordinances of July that of having interfered with the elec- 25, attempted to enforce the execution tions, consisted of the circulars of the ex. of them by arms, and advised the king to declare Paris in a state of siege, to subdue its fury. Lafayette, therefore, perceiving the legitimate resistance of the people. the counter-revolutionary tendency of The judgment then declared that, as no the government, resigned his post on the law had determined the punishment of 24th December; and count Lobau was treason, it belonged to the court to supply appointed commander of the national the deficiency; and condemned prince guards of Paris, that of commander-inPolignac to imprisonment for life, and to chief of the national guards of the kingcivil death ; and Peyronnet, Chantelauze, dom being thus abolished. Thus the and Guernon de Ranville, to imprison- party of the movement, composed of ment for life, with the loss of their titles, many able and highly popular men, was rank and orders.-See Procès des der- thrown into opposition to the government, niers Ministres de Charles X (2 vols., Paris, while the chamber of deputies, which, as 1830). While the trial was going on, the, we have before said, had been elected Luxembourg was surrounded by a clam- before the revolution, was disposed to orous mob, demanding the death of the look upon the ministry with jealousy, as prisoners, and threatening vengeance in partaking too much of the revolutionary case the sentence was not satisfactory. leaven. This, then, was the state of As the trial proceeded, and it began to be France at the close of the year in which suspected that a capital sentence would the act of the revolution had occurred. A not be pronounced, the violence of the new king, who was understood to have multitude increased, and every thing seem- no great regard for the “men of July," ed to menace a new insurrection. The and who was willing to end the revolutroops and national guards were kept un- tion with the change of dynasty which der arms by night, and bivouacked in seated himself on the throne, had been crethe public places. The whole personal ated by the two chambers, without any influence of the king and of Lafayette appeal to the national voice. Those was also employed to soothe the popu- chambers consisted of the peers, men in lace: still the number and clamor of the general attached to the old régime, and mob became so alarming that it was de- enemies of the revolution, and of the termined to remove the prisoners secretly deputies, composed of a majority of men to Vincennes before sentence was pro- who had been inclined to oppose the arnounced. This being accomplished on bitrary policy of the late government as the 21st, the populace received the an- inexpedient and unsafe, and had so far nunciation of the sentence, on the next yielded to the popular call as to sanction day, without committing any actual vio- the change of dynasty, but had no wish lence, as they had no direct object of at- to make further changes in the constituitack. These disturbances were no soon- tion of the government. The courts of er over, than the question of the extension law were composed almost entirely of of the elective franchise became a subject friends of the old order of things, many of division between the chambers and of whom had shown themselves the the ministry, and also divided the ministry ready instruments of an arbitrary adminitself. The consequence was the retire- istration in prosecuting the friends of ment of the keeper of the seals, Dupont freedom. The body of the nation had, de l'Eure, who was in favor of more ex- of its own accord, formed itself into natensive changes than his colleagues in the tional guards, which chose their own offiministry; Odillon-Barrot also resigned cers; but it had never been accustomed to the prefectship of the Seine. The cham- the exercise of any political rights, and it bers were, likewise, employed, at this now looked to be admitted to the privitime, in the permanent organization of leges of freemen. It demanded the abothe national guard, and were disposed to lition of the hereditary peerage, the exabolish the office of commander-in-chief tension of the elective franchise, and a of that body, which had been created dur- new organization of the municipal ading the summer, and bestowed on Lafay- ministration, in which the nation should ette. The influence of that illustrious be permitted to take part. In regard to patriot had been somewhat diminished by foreign affairs, the patriots, or the movethe successful conclusion of the trials, and ment party, were urgent for a favorable the suppression of the riots of December, answer to the overtures of the Belgians. -results which his authority had contrib- They complained of the refusal to accept uted so much to bring about,—and the the crown, which had been offered to the conservatists now became desirous to get duke of Nemours, and they complained rid of those very men who had directed equally of the interference of the French the storm of the revolution, and calmed ministers in preventing the election of the