same manner. van The legs of the criminal were condemned to the cross. It was were laid on an anvil, and by main force peculiarly appropriated for slaves. The fractured with a heavy hammer, some- cross has been made a more terrible what similar to the modern barbarous instrument of destruction to a custom of breaking the bones of offenders quished enemy. Thus Alexander the on the wheel by an iron bar. From the Great, after putting eight or ten thousand narrative of the evangelists, we may con- Tyrians to the sword, on taking their city, clude, that breaking the legs of the thieves crucified 2000 more along the shores. was to promote their death, that they Not less sanguinary was the vengeance might be taken down the same day from of the Romans against the Jews; Minutus the cross. That spectators might learn Alexander crucified 800, and Quinctilius the cause of punishment, a label, or in- Varus 2000, on account of some revolt. scription, indicating the crime, frequently Titus, whom we are wont to esteem as surmounted the head of the criminal. humane and merciful, crucified above 500 The offence charged against Jesus Christ, in a day; and at the sack of Jerusalem, was having called himself king of the under his command, the Romans, wherevJews. Accordingly, the inscription on er they could seize the affrighted fugihis cross was, “ This is Jesus, the king of tives, either in hatred or derision, nailed the Jews.” By our own customs, a label is them to crosses about the walls of the sometimes hung from the neck of an of- city, until the multitude was so great, that fender condemned to lesser punishments, room was wanting for the crosses, and describing his guilt, which is meant to crosses for the bodies. Crucifixion has aggravate the ignominy. But among the been considered the most cruel of punRomans, this was perhaps also the war, ishments, and merited by the most atrorant for putting the sentence in execu- cious offences only. That the pain of the tion. That the object of crucifixion cross is cruel cannot be denied ; yet we might be fulfilled in exposing the body of are, perhaps, accustomed to exaggerate the criminal to decay, sentinels were com- it. Examples are not wanting of persons monly posted beside the cross, to prevent having been taken down from the cross it from being taken down and buried. alive, and surviving the laceration of their Privation of sepulture was dreaded as the members. Josephus, the historian, relates, greatest evil by the ancients, who believed that, on leaving a particular town in Juthat the soul could never rest or enjoy fe- dea, he saw a great many of the enemy licity so long as their mortal remains con- crucified ; but it grieved him much to tinued on the earth. Thus it was a great recognise three of the number with whom aggravation of the punishment. Besides he had been in intimate habits. He these, the ordinary modes of inflicting the hastened to inform Titus of the fact, who punishment of crucifixion, assuredly suf- immediately ordered them to be taken ficiently cruel in themselves, mankind down, and their wounds carefully healed. have sought the gratification of vengeance Two, nevertheless, perished; but the in deviating from them. Such was the third survived. conduct of the Roman soldiers, under CRUOR. (See Blood.) Titus, at the siege of Jerusalem, where the CRYSTALLIZATION. (See Cohesion.) miserable Jews were crucified in various CUBEBs. (See Pepper.) postures by their sanguinary enemies. CUCUMBER-TREE. (See Magnolia.) Seneca speaks of crucifixion with the CUMULUS. (See Clouds.) head downwards; and of this we have a Cuvier died at Paris, May 15, 1832. noted example in the history of St. Peter, Cuzco. (See Cusco.). during the first century of the Christian CYANOMETER. (See Heaven.) era. Having been seized by the Roman government, and condemned to die on the cross, it is said that he solicited, as a D. greater degradation, that he might be crucified with his head downwards. It appears that delinquents were sometimes Dancotahs. (See Indians, American.) affixed to the cross, and burnt or suffo- DALMATIA, DUKE OF. (See Soult.) cated to death. With respect to the per- Dark Ages. (See Middle Ages.) sons on whom this punishment was in- Davy, sir Humphrey, died in 1831. flicted, we have seen that the Carthaginian DE Bay. (See Baius.) leaders were not exempt from it; but DEATH, APPARENT, was referred to elsewhere, especially among the Jews from Asphyria, for the treatment of perand Romans, only the lowest malefactors sons in a state of suspended animation: the process will be found described under Drowning. DECIGRAMME. (See Gramme.) DENYS, ST., ABBEY OF. (See Denis.) ⚫ DERTZHAVIN. (See Derschawin.) DESIDERADA, OF DESIRADA. (See Deseada.) DESSOLES died in 1828. DEVA-NAGARA. (See Sanscrit.) DIABETES is an affection of a very peculiar nature, and which, both with respect to its origin, its proximate cause, and its treatment, has given rise to much controversy. Its most remarkable symptoms are, a great increase in the quantity of urine, a voracious appetite, a stoppage of the cutaneous perspiration, thirst, emaciation, and great muscular debility. The urine is not only prodigiously increased in its quantity, but likewise has its composition completely changed; the substance named urea, which it contains in the healthy state, is entirely removed, or exists in very small proportion, while in its stead we find a large quantity of a body possessing the physical and chemical properties of sugar. Whether diabetic differs essentially from vegetable sugar, is to be regarded more as a chemical question, than as what, in any respect, influences either our pathology or our practice; and it has been a subject of controversy whether there be a proper diabetes insipidus, that is, a disease attended with the increased discharge of urine, the voracious appetite, and the morbid state of the skin, but where the urine does not contain sugar. There is much obscurity respecting the origin of diabetes: it has been attributed to improper diet, to the use of spirituous liquors; to large quantities of watery fluids; to exposure to cold during perspiration; to violent exercise; and, in short, to any thing which might be supposed likely to weaken the system generally, or the digestive organs in particular. It does not, however, appear that any of these circumstances so commonly precede the disease, as to entitle it to be regarded as the cause, although many of them may contribute to aggravate it, or to bring it into action, when the foundation is laid in the constitution. The proximate has been no less the subject of controversy than the exciting cause; and on this point two hypotheses have divided the opinions of pathologists: some have ascribed it to a primary affection of the stomach and the function of assimilation, and others to a primary dis ease of the kidney. With respect to the treatment which may afford the best chance of success, or which may possibly remove the complaint in its incipient state, we should recommend that a moderate bleeding be premised, and that a diet be employed, of which vegetable matter should form only a small proportion at the same time we may administer vegetable tonics, and may endeavor to restore the natural action of the skin by diaphoretics and the warm bath. DIARRHEA; a very common disease, which consists in an increased discharge from the alimentary canal, the evacuations being but little affected, except in their assuming a more liquid consistence. They are generally preceded or accompanied by flatulence, and a griping pain in the bowels, and frequently by sickness; but this should, perhaps, rather be attributed to the same cause which produces the diarrhoea, than be considered as a part of the disease itself. The symptoms of this complaint are so obvious as seldom to leave any doubt respecting its existence; but there are two diseases that resemble it, and from which it is important to distinguish it-dysentery and cholera. For the most part, an attention to the nature of the evacuations is sufficient to point out the distinction; or if, as occasionally happens, the diseases appear to run into each other, our remedies must be administered accordingly, always adapting them rather to the symptoms than to a technical nomenclature. The exciting causes of diarrhoea are various; perhaps the most frequent is repletion of the stomach, or the reception into it of some kind of indigestible food: cold applied to the surface of the body, and especially to the legs and feet, is also an exciting cause of diarrhoea; and it is occasionally produced by impressions upon the nervous system, or even by mere mental emotions. In children, the peculiar irritation produced by teething seems to be a frequent exciting cause of diarrhoea, as well as that which arises from the presence of worms in the alimentary canal. Diarrhoea is often symptomatic of some other disease: of these, one of the most violent is the colliquative discharge from the bowels, which occurs in the latter stages of hectic fever. It is also a frequent attendant or sequel of the affections of the liver that come on after a residence in hot climates, and is then found to be one of the most unmanageable symptoms of these diseases. In its simple form, diarrhoea is not difficult of cure, and, perhaps, in a great majority of cases, would be relieved under several private masters. He was by the mere efforts of nature. The proxi- then sent over to a private seminary in mate cause of diarrhæa appears to be an Amsterdam. Young D’Israeli now applied increase of the peristaltic motion of the in- himself ardently to study. In classical testines, which may depend either upon a literature, however, he made no great stimulating substance applied to them, or progress; but he gained an intimate acupon an increased sensibility in the part, quaintance with several modern lanrendering it more easily affected by the guages, and with the authors who have ordinary stimuli. In cases of the first de- written in them. At the end of two years, scription, which constitute a great major- Mr. D'Israeli returned to his native counity of those that fall under our observa- try. He next made a tour in France and tion, the most effectual remedies are mild Italy, and returned with a valuable colpurgatives, given in small doses, and fre- lection of books, and a confirmed prediquently repeated. Along with the purga- lection for French literature. While he tives large quantities of mild diluents will was at Amsterdam, he first tried to write be found serviceable; and the food should verse, and took Pope for his model. His be of the least stimulating kind, and be earliest effort in England appears to have composed as much as possible of liquids. been a Poetical Epistle on the Abuse of The choice of the purgative will depend Satire, which was an attack on Peter upon the state of the stomach, and vari- Pindar (printed in the 59th volume of the ous other circumstances: neutral salts, Gentleman's Magazine). In 1791, he castor oil, rhubarb and magnesia, are, per- published a poem, entitled a Defence of haps, among those that are the most gen- Poetry, which was addressed to the poet erally applicable : the last will be es- laureate. It was an animated composipecially proper when we have reason to tion; but, when only a few copies were suspect an acid state of the alimentary sold, Mr. D’Israeli destroyed the whole canal. After the due exhibition of pur- edition. His next work was the first gatives, we shall generally find the com- volume of the Curiosities of Literature plaint to subside without the use of any (1791), a selection made with taste and other remedies; and, by a proper regula- judgment, and which was so well receivtion of the diet, the parts resume their ed that he prefixed his name to the second healthy action. Considerable advantage volume (1793). The work has since has been gained by the use of warm cloth- passed through several editions. The ing, and particularly of flannel worn next seventh edition, published in 1824, forms to the skin, in those who are subject to fre- five octavo volumes. Since that publicaquent attacks of diarrhæa; and some- tion, he has constantly appeared in the times it has appeared that the warm bath, character of a writer, with success. His or even the removal to a milder climate, works display extensive reading, a lively has been of permanent utility. fancy, and a pleasant wit, and are written Dickinson, Jonathan, first president of in a flowing and spirited style. The folNassau hall, the college of New Jersey, lowing is a list of them, in their order of was born at Hatfield, Massachusetts, publication :-a Dissertation on AnecApril 22, 1688, graduated at Yale college dotes (1793); Essay on the Manners and in 1706, and, a few years after, became Genius of the Literary Character (1795); the minister of the first Presbyterian Miscellanies, or Literary Recreations church in Elizabethtown, New Jersey. (1796); Vaurien, a Satirical Novel (2 vols., In 1746, he was appointed president of 1797); Romances (1798); Narrative Pothe new college, but died Oct. 7, in the ems (1803); Despotism, or the Fall of following year. His numerous theologi- the Jesuits, a novel (2 vols.); Flim cal writings are much esteemed. Flams, or Life of my Uncle, a kind of Diocletian, Era Of. (See Epoch.) satirical biography (3 vols.); Calamities D'ISRAELI, Isaac, is the only son of an of Authors, including some Inquiries Italian merchant, of a Jewish family, who respecting their Moral and Literary Cbarwas long a resident in England. At a acters (1812–13, 2 vols., 8vo.); Quarrels very early period of youth, he had a pas- of Authors, or some Memoirs for our sion for reading, and even attempted to Literary History, including Specimens of write little tales concerning giants and Controversy, to the Reign of Elizabeth ghosts. But, though fond of reading, he (1814, 3 vols., 8vo.); a new Series of the was averse from regular study. He first Curiosities of Literature, consisting of went to an academy at Enfield, near his Researches in Literary, Biographical and father's country-house; but there he learnt Political History (3 vols., 8vo., 1823); and nothing more than a little imperfect Latin. Commentaries on the Reign of Charles I Nor did he make much greater progress (5 vols., 1831).— His son is the author of a a several well-known novels, Vivian Gray, originally adopted for removing the inethe Young Duke, Contarini Fleming, and qualities from the bottom of rivers and others. harbors, is the spoon dredging-boat. An Doomsday Book. (See Domesday apparatus of this description was used for Book.) dredging the harbor of Leghorn so far DOORNICK. (See Tournay.) back as 1690, the expense of which DORSET, EARL OF. (See Sackville, was fifteen paoli (about one dollar and Charles, and Sackville, Thomas.) seventy-five cents) the boat-load, of the DOUBLE SPEEDER. (See Cotton Manu- size of a small river barge. But Cornelifacture.) us Meyer, a Dutch engineer in the en emDRABANTS, or TRABANTS. (See Guards.) ploy of Cosmo III, grand-duke of Tusca DRAWING FRAME. (See Cotton Manu- ny, built, at Leghorn, a dredging-boat, facture.) after the fashion of those in common ase DREDGING is commonly applied to the in Holland at that period. The expense operation of removing mud, silt, and oth- of the construction of this boat is stated er depositions, from the bottom of har- to have been $105, and the cost of dredgbors, canals, rivers, docks, &c. The pro- ing a boat-load five paoli, being only one cess of silting may be readily conceived, third of the Italian apparatus. The spoon when it is considered that every rill of dredging-boat has been long, and is, inwater carries with it a quantity, however deed, still used in Holland and Flanders, minute, of earthy particles, and that these in deepening the extensive tracts of carills are so many tributaries to the brooks nals. The excavated matters are generally and rivulets falling into the great streams of a mossy description, which, being which form the drainage of the vast val- compressed in moulds and dried, are used leys through which they flow, finally car- as turf-fuel. On the Thames, this operarying their waters to the sea. The beds tion is conducted on a large scale, under of all large rivers, more particularly those the immediate direction of the Trinity which pass along comparatively flat or board; and the stuff dredged from the alluvial soils, are much encumbered in bottom, consisting chiefly of gravel, is their channels by banks of sand and small sold, at the rate of about one shilling a gravel, while on their margins are found ton, for ballast, particularly to the colliers; the finer or more minute depositions of and to such an extent is this process carsilt and mud. Large streams, from the ried on, that the Ballast hills of Shields great body of water which they bring, and Newcastle, which are curious from and from the greater strength of their their great extent, have been chiefly raised currents, will be always able to make a by the discharge from the vessels which passage ; but narrow and winding rivers, have brought gravel in ballast from the with slowly-flowing waters, are often ma- Thames. The spoon apparatus consists terially injured by the depositions. To of a strong ring or hoop of malleable iron, such a degree has this been experienced about six or seven feet in circumference, at Sandwich, in Kent, that that ancient properly formed for making an impresseaport is left almost in the state of an sion upon the soft and muddy ground. inland town; and the port of Little To this ring is strongly attached a large Hampton, on the coast of Sussex, which bag of bullock's hide or tanned leather, was a harbor for the largest vessels two perforated with a number of small holes, centuries since, at present admits only with a capacity of four or five cubic feet. small colliers, and even those with diffi- A long pole or handle is attached to the culty, at high spring tides. The rivers spoon, and a rope to the bottom of the of Holland, and those flowing through bag, for directing their position at the the plains of Italy, are, likewise, thus af- coinmencement of each operation. The fected ; and, 'according to the impurity pole or handle varies in length and thickof the waters, the entrances of docks and ness, according to the depth of water, harbors, canals, basins, &c., are more or from fifteen to thirty feet. This apparaless silted up, and require to be cleansed tus is generally worked with a wheel and or dredged. The late Mr. Rennie re- pinion or winch; and the chain or rope ported that 400,000 tons of mud were an- is brought from the spoon to the winch, nually discharged into the Thames from through a block suspended from a small the sewers of London. The innumera- crane, for bearing the spoon and its conble shoals between the Nore and the tents to the side of the boat. The purDowns amply prove that this calculation chase-rope is led upon deck by a snatchis not exaggerated. The most simple block in the proper direction for the barmode of dredging, and probably the one rel of the winch. In situations where the The command of head-water is considerable, it is retained in a scouring basin, which is a water-tight compartment of a harbor furnished with sluices to run off the water as required. All harbors left dry every tide at low water, wherein the deposition of mud is most apt to take place, ought, if possible, to be furnished with a scouring basin. For clearing the bottom and bar of a harbor, in conjunction with that mode of dredging which simply loosens the stuff, the use of the scouring basin is most effectual. The harbor of Montrose is a striking instance in point, where the great natural basin connected with that port is covered every tide, by which, it has been computed, about fifty-five millions of cubic yards of back water are obtained, which produce so great a current that the shifting sand-bank off the coast, called the Annet, is prevented from being thrown across the mouth or entrance of that harbor, in gales of wind from the eastward; and the navigation is kept open and preserved of considerable depth, even at the lowest ebbs. same remarks are applicable to the entrance of all great rivers, in which the navigation can only be preserved by a strong current of water. The most eminent engineers in Europe, in accordance with this idea, have introduced scouring basins into their designs of tide-harbors. Of these, the sluices at Ostend and Ramsgate harbors are particular examples, where the silt in the outer harbors is dredged and loosened, and raked into the tracks or courses of the water issuing from the scouring basins. To effect this, the dredging-harrow, consisting of a frame of timber and plate iron, is used; the common harrow, the ordinary plough, and even large rakes, have been employed with good effect in many places, particularly in Holland, upon the extensive flats at the entrance of some of the large rivers. In wet docks connected with each other, much use may be made of this mode of scouring or floating away mud by opening numerous sluices from one dock into another. This has been done at Liverpool, Leith and Bristol, with good effect. But in the improvement of navigable rivers, many of these modes of dredging and scouring have been laid aside, and the operation of narrowing the channel and confining the current has been adopted. By this system, the bed of the river Clyde has been deepened from five to nine feet, to the great advantage of the trade and commerce of Glasgow. In like manner the opening of the VOL. XIII. 38 Eau Brink Cut, a little above Lynn-Regis, has produced the most salutary effects in clearing away the obstructions in the river Ouse, below Ely; and the depositions in front of the town of Lynn will be scoured away so soon as a proper direction has been given to the current. The bucket dredging machine has been generally supposed to be of British origin; and it was certainly first used in England, by the late Mr. Rennie, at Hull. It is probable that steam was not applied to the bucket dredging apparatus prior to the commencement of the present century, nor brought into general use sooner than ten or twelve years after that period. At the present day, whenever a continued necessity exists for dredging, the steam apparatus is always employed. DSHAGATAI. (See Tartary.) DUN-FISH. (See Cod.) DUSE. (See Deuse.) DUTCH GOLD. (See Copper.) DUTCH LEAF. (See Divisibility.) DUTCH SCHOOL OF PAINTERS. (See Netherlandish School.) DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. (See Snakeroot.) DWARF ROSE BAY. (See Rhododendron Maximum.) DYKE. (See Dike.) DYSENTERY (dysenteria; from dus, difficulty, and ivrepa, the bowels); the flux. It is known by contagious fever; frequent griping stools; tenesmus; stools, chiefly mucous, sometimes mixed with blood, the natural fæces being retained or voided in small, compact, hard substances, known by the name of scybala; by loss of appetite, and nausea. It occurs chiefly in summer and autumn, and is often occasioned by much moisture succeeding quickly intense heat or great drought; whereby the perspiration is suddenly checked, and a determination made to the intestines. It is likewise occasioned by the use of unwholesome and putrid food, and by noxious exhalations and vapors; hence it appears often in armies encamped in the neighborhood of low, marshy grounds, and proves highly destructive; but the cause which most usually gives rise to it, is a specific contagion; and when it once makes its appearance, where numbers of people are collected together, it not unfrequently spreads with great rapidity. A peculiar disposition in the atmosphere seems often to predispose or give rise to the dysentery, in which case it prevails epidemically. It frequently occurs about the same time with autumnal intermittent and remittent fevers; and with these it is often complicated. The disease, howev |