and a Description of Amsterdam (3 vols., precisely the same proportions anong the folio, 1760), and some polemical treatises several interests, the compensation will on theological subjects.

be twice as great in one case as in the WAGERING POLICIES. (See Insu- other. This effectiveness of the labor rance.)

and means of production in a communiWages. The cost of an article is made ty, is a matter of the most weighty conup of that of the materials consumed, sideration, and goes far in determining and the compensation for the use of the the condition of the population. This land, buildings and implements employ- gives us two modes of comparison, as to ed, and the labor, skill and superintend- the rate of wages in any two communience requisite in its production, with in- ties, the results of which may be very terest on these outlays until the product different. If we ask whether labor is completed and ready for the market. and skill, taking the whole mass of both, When we inquire respecting the rate of of all descriptions, be better rewarded in wages, we are first to consider what extent England or in Spain, the answer may be, we give to the term; whether we compre- that a greater quantity of corresponding hend the compensation given for skill articles goes to compensate the same labor and industry, of all descriptions, employ- and skill in England, but that a greater ed in the production, distribution, and proportion of the whole mass of annual even use and consumption, of all sorts of products goes to compensate labor and commodities; for wages are paid to a skill in Spain. To make the distinction servant who waits at a table, or a coach- more plain—a laborer in England may man who drives a pleasure coach, as well earn a yard of cloth, and one in Spain as to a miller, teamster, or seaman, though but half a yard, of the same quality, in a the former are not, like the latter, em- day; so that the English laborer gets absoployed in giving any additional value to lutely twice as much compensation as the any article by producing or transporting Spanish. But, owing to greater skill and it. If we divide the whole annual value advantages, the English laborer may proproduced in a community into three parts, duce four times as much cloth, or materiand assign one to pay rent, another to pay als for cloth, as the Spanish laborer in the for the use of capital, and a third for wa- same time. Therefore, though the Engges,--taking wages in its most compre- lish laborer gets twice as great a quantity, hensive sense, as including all that is the Spaniard gets twice as great a propaid for industry and skill of all descrip- portion of the whole product. The tions,—then the first material considera- wages of one will accordingly be twice tion is, What is the mass of the products as great as that of the other, and vice in proportion to the land, capital and labor versa, according as we make the compariemployed ? for the same quantity and son in one or the other way. The ordinaquality of land, capital and labor will ry mode of comparison has reference to yield a greater annual product in one the absolute compensation, that is, the community than in another. What is the quantity of valuable vendible things aggregate mass or fund out of which the commanded by the same labor. All labordividend is to be made? The aggregate ers want food, clothing and shelter ; and productiveness of England, for instance, he that can command the best for the will vastly exceed that of Spain in all same labor is the best paid. In making these particulars; for the lands are made the comparison, we inay regard the more productive, the labor is more skil- money that each can earn; but then we fully applied, and the capital is more rap- must go further, and inquire what the idly carried through the different forms same weight of silver or gold will purof production, and transported through chase in each of the two countries. the different places in its way to that of To the man who expends his wages final consumption ; and, consequently, the where they are earned, a given amount same capital is more effective, or, in other of silver or gold is valuable only in words, contributes to a greater mass of proportion to the things that he can production in the same time. We insti- produce in exchange for it. To all tute this inquiry as to the aggregate mass practical purposes, therefore, labor may of annual production in comparing the be higher paid in the U. States at å condition of one community with that dollar than in the West Indies at two of another. One community may have dollars. It is, therefore, surprising to see twice as great a fund to divide as another, economists making comparisons of the from the same aggregate means of pro- money rate of wages in different counduction; and if the distribution is made in tries, as if that gave any practical satis

a

factory result, without also inquiring ucts, and yet have a higher rent for his further what the same money will pur- ground every successive year, because chase in each of the two countries. For the quantity which he does receive, on acinstance, a laborer at Buenos Ayres can count of its increased comparative value, earn an ox in three days, which, in New will command, on the whole, more of the England, would cost him from one to things for which he wishes to exchange it. three months' wages, and in England During the same time, the laborer will restill more ; whereas the English or New ceive, for the same labor, a less quantiEngland laborer can earn more cloth in ty and less proportion of the raw products; the same time than the one at Buenos and yet, taking into consideration all that Ayres, though the money price of wages he wants to consume, he may, on the is highest in the latter place. In all the whole, continue to have as high wages as speculations and treatises upon this sub- at first, whether we regard the absolute ject, we do not know of any full and sat- quantity of consumable things which isfactory comparison of the real rate of he can command by his labor, or the wages, for the corresponding kinds of proportion which it will bear to the labor, in different countries. If we whole annual product of the community. limit the inquiry to the same community, Though some parts of his food, and all we first ask what is the aggregate pro- his fuel, may cost him more labor, other duction, and how great a proportion of parts of his food, particularly that brought the whole annual product goes to labor from abroad, and bis shelter and clothing, and skill, and how much to rent and cap- and especially all those articles that come ital. And here we readily perceive a under the class of moderate luxuries, will gradual change in the course of the prog- probably cost him less labor. In the ress of a community; for, in the early progress of a community in which propstages of improvement, and while the pop- erty is well protected, accumulation gradulation is comparatively thin, as in the U. ually reduces the rate of interest, thus reStates, the rent, and so the value, of lands ducing the proportional amount of the is low; that is, the holder of a particular cost of production, as far as it depends on piece of cultivated land receives but a the use of capital, whereby a compensasmall proportion of the annual products; tion, in part at leasi, is made for the enbut, as the population thickens, the pro- bancement of rents. All the inventions prietor of the same tract will receive a and facilities to production, transportagreater proportion of the whole products tion and exchange, also contribute to of the same cultivation than his prede- make a similar compensation. From cessors. Take the instance of the same these causes, it may happen that, in the crop of grass, on the same piece of ground, advancement of the population, wealth, for a hundred successive years, from the arts and industry of a community, though time of felling the forest, until a populous a smaller proportion of the whole prodtown has grown up in the neighborhood; ucts goes to compensate mere labor, still the wages for cutting and securing the a greater absolute amount of products crop will, at first, be one half or three may go to compensate the same labor ; quarters of its value, and will diminish, that is, a laborer may be able to supply by degrees, to one fifth or one tenth, and himself, by his industry merely, with a the value and rent of the land will rise greater quantity of necessaries and luxuaccordingly; that is, land becomes com- ries. In some respects, the laborer suffers paratively scarce in proportion to the by the advancement of a community; in population, and the demand for its use ; others, he is benefited. But another view and all raw products, that is, all products of the subject is of the very greatest imthe value of which consists mostly of portance in considering the condition of rent, will rise in comparative value. This à people, namely, the distribution of that may take place, in a great degree, through portion of the annual products that is ala whole country, as has been the case in lotted to industry and skill among the England. But the whole territory does different classes of the industrious. It is not continue to produce merely the same not possible to estimate exactly what proquantity, since, as the wants and con- portion the compensation for making out sumption of the community increase, the a legal process, visiting a patient, officiat-, labor bestowed upon the same area willing at the celebration of public worship, be increased for the purpose of augment- superintending the concerns of a bank, ing the quantity of products, so that the commanding a ship or a regiment, &c., land-owner may, in fact, receive a less ought justly, or for the best interests of a quantity, and a less proportion of the prod- community, to bear to the wages of mere

4

VOL. XIII.

manual labor, requiring very little skill ; Phosphoric acid,

41.73 nor, if we could determine this propor- Fluoric acid,

6.50 tion, would it be practicable to establish Magnesia,

46.66 it. The law has interposed, in many in- Oxide of iron, .

5.00 stances, in different countries, to regulate Oxide of manganese, .

.50 the price of labor and commodities; but it is now universally admitted that any such It is found in veins of quartz, embraced interpositions are most usually ineffectual, in clay-slate, and occurs near Werfen, in and always prejudicial. But though pos- Salzburg. itive regulations, in this respect, will nev- Wagons most probably originated from er remedy the evils of an unjust distribu- rude vehicles dragged on cylindrical logs, tion, yet a cominunity may be so consti- which must soon bave suggested the idea tuted, and so situated, that the spontane- of the axis and solid wheel, even now ous operation of internal causes will effect used in Portugal by the peasants. ACa nearly just apportionment of the rewards cording to Moses, Egypt was the country of skill and industry among the various where wagons were first used. The Chiclasses of the industrious. To ascertain nese call the inventor Hiene-Yuene. The what circumstances will have this ope- Greeks attributed the invention to Erichration, we must inquire what class first suf- thonius, fourth king of Athens, and say fers from an inequality ; and we find it to that he used them in consequence of be those who depend wholly on their labor lameness. Wagons with two wheels may for subsistence. This is the part of the pop- have been the first constructed; but Houlation where misery begins; and thence mer mentions four-wheeled wagons, the it spreads and accumulates until it is felt invention of which was ascribed to the by the whole; for every part of the pop- Phrygians. Whoever first conceived the ulation will inevitably sympathize, more or idea of an axis was a most ingenious less, with every other. It is utterly impos- man; and he who applied it to wheels and sible for any class so to separate itself from wagons has become one of the greatest the rest as not to be affected, directly or in- benefactors of mankind. Much time directly, by their enjoyments and sufferings. elapsed before wagons were used for How, then, can the wages of mere labor, pleasure carriages. The sedan chair and requiring very little skill, be sustained at a horseback were long preferred. In war, just rate, so that the laborer shall have his use was sooner made of the wagon. Mofair proportion of the annual products ? ses mentions the war-chariots of Pharaoh. This can be done only by diffusing and Theseus is said to have introduced chariots maintaining good habits, industry and in- among the Greeks. The horses were covertelligence among the poor class. It should ed with iron scales. At the end of the pole be the policy of every society to make all lances were fastened, and at the side and the influences, moral, political, economical below were scythes. These chariots were and social, bear, with the greatest possi- driven into the ranks of the enemy. The ble energy, upon this point. It is not Greeks, besides, used two-wheeled charpracticable to sustain this class by exter- iots, each containing two persons, one of nal helps: when they have once become whom drove while the other threw degraded, it is scarcely possible to reno- spears. The chariots were open behind, vate and restore thein. The true doc- and had low wheels. The Roinans used trine is that of prevention.

them early. In the twelve tables (q. v.) WAGNER, Ernest; a German poet, born the arcerá is mentioned. The Romans in 1768, and died in 1812. His poem, gave different names to the wagons, accalled Wilibald's Views of Life, is cele- cording to the purpose to which they brated. His complete works were pub- were applied, as carpentum, a two-wheellished in 1827 et seq., at Leipsic.

ed vehicle, with a vaulted covering, used WAGNERITE; a mineral, found in com- particularly by the Roman ladies ; carplicated crystals, the primary form of ruca, a kind of state coach (q. v.); cisiwhich is an oblique rhombic prism, um, essedum, &c. They had also triwhose lateral planes incline under an- umphal chariots (currus triumphalis). gles of 95° 25 and 84° 35'. Lustre Wagons are drawn by men or beasts, or vitreous; color several shades of yellow, propelled by machinery. It is reported sometimes nearly orange-yellow, often in- that, at the panathenea, a galley was clining to gray; streak white; translu- moved through the city by internal cent; hardness nearly that of feldspar; wheel-work. From the time of Roger specific gravity 3.11. 'It consists of Bacon (in the thirteenth century) to our

days, many trials of locomotive wagons rated, it is certain that the Austrian force have been made, of which the steam- was not half as great. From July 2, the wagon, lately brought to such perfection, French attempted, at several points on is the most important. The wind has the islands, to establish a secure coinmu also been frequently used to propel wag- nication with the opposite bank, without ons. Simon Stevin, of Bruges, invented being prevented by the fire of the Austria sailing wagon for twenty-eight persons, ans; and on July 4, Napoleon concenwhich, on even ground, is said to have trated the greatest part of his troops on travelled fourteen Dutch leagues in two the island of Lobau. At ten o'clock in hours! Mr. Slater, an Englishman, trav- the evening, the first troops, in small numelled in a sailing wagon from Alexan- bers, passed in boats over the Danube, and dria to Bassora.—Respecting the inven- established themselves on the left bank, tion of wagons, harnesses, &c., anong the during a tremendous storm, and supportancients, see the work of Ginzrot (Mu- ed by a warm fire from all the batteries, nich, 1817, 2 vols.). Kites have also directed against Enzersdorf and the Ausbeen used to propel wagons. (See Ve- trian redoubts erected on those spots locipede, and Steam.)

where a landing was expected. EnzersWAGRAM, BATTLE OF, on July 5 and 6, dorf was in flames, and shed a brilliant 1809, gained by Napoleon over the arch- light on the Danube. With great skill duke Charles. It decided the fate of and promptness, excellent bridges were Austria, on the same field on which Ro- thrown over the river, and as early as two dolph of Hapsburg (q. v.), in 1278, bad o'clock, the whole army had reached the been victorious over the proud Ottocar, left bank. It seems to have been in conand laid the foundation of Austria's pow- sequence of a settled plan, that Charles er. The severe loss which Napoleon had did not endeavor to prevent the passage sustained in the battle of Aspern (q. v.), of Napoleon, and that the Austrians imon the occasion of his unsuccessful at- mediately made a retrograde movement. tempt to pass the Danube, made repose On the morning of the 5th, the French necessary for his army. He also needed army extended itself in the Marchfeld (a reinforcements. These he received in plain many leagues in length, on the left the army of the viceroy of Italy, who bank of the Danube, and containing the bad forced the Austrians, at last, from that town of Wagram). A numerous artillery country to Hungary. Bernadotte was al. along the whole French line played in60 approaching with the Saxons; and cessantly. The Austrians were slowly other divisions were on the way. The forced back during the day. In point of archduke Charles, on the left bank of the fact, the archduke Charles had at this Danube, was in a less fortunate situation. time but three divisions to oppose to the His loss, also, had been severe; and his French forces. It was not till towards army consisted, in a great measure, of night that his other forces could be raw troops hastily levied. Napoleon re- brought into action. It is impossible for mained in Vienna, and prepared every us to give the details of the battle, or to thing for a decisive struggle, whilst his describe the repeated assaults on Wagram antagonist appeared to stand merely on by the Saxons. The French army bithe defensive; at least nothing was done vouacked on some places very near the by him to disturb the French in their enemy. Some have believed that the repreparations on the islands of the Dan- treat of Charles, on July 5, was in orube. Heavy ordnance was carried from der to place the French troops between the arsenals of Vienna to the well-con- his forces and those which were apstructed works on these islands. Materi- proaching, under the archduke John, from als for bridges were provided, and every Hungary. But the army of the archduke precaution taken to prevent a second fail- John was much too weak to produce a ure in the attempt to pass the river. The decisive effect, and, moreover, would position of the antagonists permitted the have been opposed by the disposable most accurate knowledge of all the move- French divisions, and the 10,000 Bavariments of both armies. `July 1, Napoleon ans under Wrede. Early in the morning concentrated his forces, and fixed his of July 6, the extreme left wing of the head-quarters at Lobau. Presburg had French, under Bernadotte and Masséna, been occupied by Davoust a few days was extended to Hirschstätten; the centre, previously. Vandamme guarded the Dan- comprising the guards and the Italian ube as far as Lintz. The whole number army, was at Raschdorf; to the right were of the French forces has been estimated Marmont and Oudinot; and Davoust was at 180,000; and if this number is over- on the extreme right. The archduke

Charles now projected an attack, en eché- seem to be peculiar to the eastern conlon, from his right, against the French tinent. They differ from the warblers left. Thus it was hoped that the Austrian only in their longer legs, more slender army might relieve itself from the ex- form, and longer tail

. They never perch treme pressure upon its left wing. At on trees or shrubs, but frequent the marfirst, this attack was successful: the gins of ponds and water-courses, and are French were forced back as far as En- continually elevating and depressing the zersdorf. The Austrian centre was not so tail; hence the name. The common Eufortunate: it could not advance equally ropean wagtail (M. alba) is a familiar bird, with the right wing, and thus a danger- which seems to seek the society of man ous extension of the Austrian forces took and domestic animals, and is even seen place. Napoleon knew how to keep them frequently to rest upon the backs of catin this situation, and thus to obstruct their tle while they are grazing. The vicinity further attacks; and soon after, having of mills is observed to be its favorite returned the Austrian left wing, he began sort. The plumage is a mixture of black, to act on the offensive, and endeavored to white and gray. It is widely diffused decide the battle by destroying the enemy's throughout the eastern continent. centre. Masséna attacked Aderklaa most WAHABEES, Wahabites, or WECHAviolently ; and, had he succeeded, all BITES, is the name of several Arab tribes, would have been lost; but the Austrians who profess the religious faith which fought with great bravery against the Sheik Mohammed, son of Abdel Wahab, cavalry, artillery and guards, and repeat- taught in the middle of the eighteenth ed attacks were repulsed. Had the arch- century, and, like the founder of the reliduke John arrived at this time on the left gion of the Koran, sought to propagate wing, as he was ordered to do, a favora- by art and courage. Sheik Mohamble result might have been obtained; but med, belonging to the great tribe of the he did not come up, and the French Tamini (born in 1729, in the town of troops spread far to the right. Upon the Ajen, situated near the desert, in the disthird attack, they occupied the height of trict of Al Ared), had acquired great learnMarkgrafen-Neusiedel,' and the Austrian ing in Bassora, Bagdad and Damascus. right wing was deprived of the advan- He taught at first in Ajen, and soon made tages which it had gained. The Austri- proselytes of the inhabitants of the disans retreated. The archduke John, it is trict of Al Ared. Claiming divine inspisaid, was detained near Presburg in col- ration, he taught, like the Koran, the doclecting his corps. It was not until late in trines of which he but partially received, the evening, that he heard from the field the existence of an only God, the Author of battle that every thing was decided. of the world, the Rewarder of the good, To save his own troops, he again retreat- and the Punisher of the bad; but he reed from the Marchfeld. Both armies had jected all the stories contained in the Kodisplayed great valor. The loss of the ran, especially those concerning MohamAustrians may have amounted to 27,000 med, whom he considered merely a man men killed and wounded (they had taken, beloved of God, but branded the worship however, 7000 prisoners, twelve eagles of him as a crime directly opposed to the and colors, and eleven cannons). The true adoration of the Divinity. He also loss of the French cannot be reckoned at prohibited the wealth and splendor which less. On the 7th, 9th and 10th, the arch- are found in the mosques of the Mohamduke retreated, constantly fighting, to the medans. All who should oppose this new heights of Znaym, where Marmont and doctrine were to be destroyed by fire and Masséna reached him. On the 11th, a sword. Mohammed first converted to bis battle was fought, which, however, was newdoctrines the sovereign of Derayeh and interrupted by the armistice offered by Lahsa, Ebn-Sehud, whom he proclaimed Austria, and concluded, July 12, at prince (emir) and protector of the new sect, Znaym, after which the negotiations for of which he declared himself high-priest, peace commenced. For information re- thus separating the spiritual and secular specting the whole campaign, see general authorities, which were afterwards heredi, Pelet's (aid-de-camp of Masséna) Mémoire tary in the families of Ebn-Sehud and sur la Guerre de 1809, en Allemagne, avec Sheik Mohammed. The principal seat les Opérations particulières des Corps d'Ita- of the Wahabees was the city of Derayeh, lie, de Pologne, de Sare, de Naples, et de in the province of Nedsjed, and Jamama, Walcheren (Paris, 1825, seq., 4 vols., with 250 miles west of Bassora. As the volaan atlas).

ries of the new faith were all inspired Wagtail (motacila); small birds which with the highest enthusiasm, prepared for