man.”

myself." The inquiry of the king, on his therefore interred secretly at Scellieres, a arrival, if the decree of the parliament Bernardine abbey, between Nogent and was still in force against him, made him Troyes. By a decree of the national asanxious; but nothing further was done to sembly (1791), his remains were placed in molest him. The French academy sent the Pantheon, in Paris, near those of J. J. three of their members to welcome him, Rousseau and other great men.—The exthough, in similar cases, it was customary terior of Voltaire was quite characteristic. to send but one. The actors waited upon In his countenance, as has been said, him in a body: “We have come,” said there was a mixture of the eagle and the they, “to beseech you to inspire us with monkey; and, in character, he united the your odes.” “I live only for you and boldness of the one with something of the through you” was his answer—a proof malice of the other. He was impetuous, that he considered his dramas as his chief irritable, sensitive, but also mild, compasproductions; and, in truth, dramatic sionate, benevolent, cheerful, and lively works were his last labors. He wrote his from principle. With noble views and Tancrède in the sixty-sixth year of his age. principles, his actions were not always The calls upon him were so constant that the most praiseworthy; and many of his he felt hiniself oppressed by them. “I good deeds did not flow from the purest am suffocated,” said he," but it is with sources. He had something vacillating roses.” Franklin came, with his grand- in his character; and, notwithstanding his son, to see Voltaire : “My son,” said he, hatred of prejudice, he frequently bowed “fall upon your knees before this great to it in a manner which did him little

Voltaire gave the boy bis bless- honor. From vanity he flattered the ing, with the words “God and freedom.” great, and often sought their company for He had brought with him a new tragedy, the same reason. His fame did not beIrène, which was performed on the 16th come great till after his retirement from of May. The royal family was present, court. He was too selfish to inspire love, and the piece was received with unbound- and avarice is said to have had much ased applause. The French academy sent cendency over him. Yet he was, in his him their gratulations on this occasion, latter years, the friend of the poor, and and placed his bust by the side of Cor- the protector of the oppressed. Notwithneille. At the sixth representation, he standing all his admirers, he gained no came into the theatre; and, when he had friend. He had great talents, but not an sat down in his box, a player entered, and elevated character; and bis writings want presented him with a laurel wreath; and, the charm which only a great soul can at the conclusion of the piece, his bust give. Nevertheless, he often acted nobly. was also crowned in the theatre. All The abbé Desfontaines, to whom he had these excitements, together with incessant shown much kindness, published, without literary labors, and the change from bis any authority, an edition of the Henriade accustomed manner of life, affected his from a very imperfect manuscript. Deshealth so much that it seemed as if he fontaines became unfortunate, repented could not live much longer. He perceiv- of what he had done, and Voltaire became ed this plainly: "I have come to Paris," again bis benefactor. Being arrested on he said, “to find my glory and my grave." account of a dishonorable accusation, the He could not sleep; and a large dose of abbé owed to Voltaire's influence with opium, which he took without the advice madam de Prie his freedom, his honor, of his physician, is thought to have has- and perhaps his life. Desfontaines rectened his death. When his tenants heard ompensed this favor by a severe criticism of his sickness, they wished to go to Par- and a bitter lampoon. To a peasant, deis, and carry him, in a litter, to Ferney. prived, by an unjust sentence, of his land, He resided in Paris with the marquis de who applied to Voltaire for assistance, he Villette. The latter sent to the principal gave 3000 livres, and invited him to settle clergyman of St. Sulpice, to induce him in Ferney. In company, Voltaire was to beg Voltaire to submit to the ceremony agreeable, polite, and a complete courtier. which Catholic Christians undergo on The activity of his temperament was so leaving the world. The circumstances great that he often Jabored all night. of the case have been related differently; Even in his eightieth year, he worked but it is certain that Voltaire died without fourteen hours a day. Among his works, receiving the sacrament, in the eighty- bis dramas hold the first place. He is the fifth year of his age, May 30, 1778. The worthy rival of Racine and Corneille, and archbishop of Paris is said to have denied his pieces are still favorites with the the corpse Christian burial; and it was French. Notwithstanding his great wit,

a

however, Voltaire was not distinguished lished an edition of Voltaire's works, in in comedy. The Henriade has many 70 volumes. A tolerably complete, but perstriking passages, but wants true epic haps not entirely impartial review of the characters, and is faulty in its plan. Among numerous literary contests of Voltaire, is his historical works, the Siècle de Louis given in the Tableau philosophique de l'EsXIV e XV, and the Histoire de Charles prit de M. de Voltaire (Geneva, 1771). XII, the Essai sur l'Histoire générale,sur les VOLTERRA; a town of Tuscany, twenMeurs et l'Esprit des Nations, abound in ty-four miles south-west of Florence, with penetrating views. His merits are not those 5000 inhabitants. It is the see of a bishof thorough investigation, but of striking op, and has a public seminary of educaand happy description, and sagacious ob- tion. The ancient Volaterra was one of servation. His prevailing defect is the ex- the twelve principal cities of Etruria, and aggerated estimation of the superiority of had 100,000 inhabitants. Some Etruscan the French over other modern nations. monuments still remain : among these His philosophical romances, treatises, are its walls, with a gate, dedicated to smaller poems, narratives, dialogues, &c., Hercules ; and the fish-pond, constructed show a comprehensive spirit

, and great of enormous blocks of stone. (See Etruria.) felicity of execution. In the department VOLUME (Latin volumen). The volume of fugitive pieces, be is unique. As a of a body has reference to the space prose writer, he is unequalled, so beauti- which it occupies. To have a correct idea ful and polished is his expression, so co- of this, imagine a body immersed entirely pious his wit. Among all the French wri- in a liquid, which neither changes nor ters, he, perhaps, displays, in the fullest penctrates it. If it is now taken out, and degree, the peculiarities of his nation. we add new liquid, to raise the contents The accomplished marchioness du Chate- of the vessel as high as they were when let, as we have already said, was his inti- the body was immersed, the amount of mate friend : bence the Lettres inédites de the newly-added liquid will give us the la Marq. du Chatelet et Supplément à la volume of the body. Thus we have a Correspondance de Voltaire avec le Roi de simple means of ascertaining the volume Prusse, etc., avec des Notes histor. (Paris, of small bodies, the irregularity of which 1818), is an important addition to his bi- presents some difficulty in the way of deography.—See La Vie de Voltaire par Con- termining it by ordinary means. Volume dorcet; also La Vie de Voltaire par M. must not be confounded with mass. On [Mercier] (Geneva, 1788); Examen des the volume also depends the difference of Ouvrages de M. de Voltaire par M. Linguet the absolute and specific gravity. (q. v.) (Brussels, 1788); Vie littéraire de Voltaire VOLUMNIA. (See Coriolanus.) rédigée par de Luchet. The abbe Du- VOLUNTEER, in military language ; one vernet describes him more particularly as who serves in the army, or undertakes a a man, and a private man, in his Vie de particular duty without being obliged so Voltaire suivie d'Anecdotes qui composent to do: thus officers not unfrequently take sa Vie privée (Paris, 1797); see also Mé- part in a campaign, as volunteers. When moires sur Voltaire et sur ses Ouvrages par an enterprise of peculiar danger is to be Wagnière et Longchamp, ses Secrétaires undertaken, as the assault of a formidable (1826, two vols.). Wagniére was directed battery, the taking of a square, &c., a call by the empress Catharine,who bought Vol- is made for volunteers ; and those who taire's library, to arrange it in St. Peters- survive receive rewards of money, or burg, as it had stood in Ferney. The Vie medals, swords, &c., or promotion. Somede Voltaire, by Mazure, is very partial. times there are also bodies of troops conHis works were published by Beaumar- sisting entirely of volunteers; e. 8. the chais, at Kehl, 1784, seq. in 70 vols. 410 Prussian volunteer riflemen, attached to and 8vo, and 92 vols. 12mo; and, by Pal- each battalion in the campaigns of 1813, issot, with notes, at Paris, 1796, seq: The '14 and '15, and the volunteer compaPièces inédites appeared at Paris in 1820. nies of citizens raised, in 1794, in EngSince 1817, seven editions of the works land. These mostly laid down their arms of Voltaire have been published (the 1801 ; but when the war broke out cheapest by Touquet, 1820). In 1823, again in 1803, and the intention of the some unpublished works of bis were French to effect a landing was found in the imperial hermitage, at Peters: nounced, the inhabitants of Great Britain burg: the most important are a bitter rose anew, and the ministers spoke of commentary upon Rousseau's Contrat nearly 500,000 volunteers being in arms. Social, and a tale; the latter has since VOLUTES. (See Architecture,vol.i, p. 340.) tecn published. Dupont has lately pub- Von; a German preposition, meaning,

an

in some cases, from, or of. It is prefixed mountain), which belougs to the Noric to the names of the host of noblemen in Alps, and separates them from the Tyrol. that country; in which case it is equiva- They were annexed to the Tyrol in 1782, lent to the French de, and the Dutch van, and were ceded with it, by the peace of which latter, however, does by uo means Presburg, to Bavaria; but, in 1814, were always indicate nobility. There are a few restored to Austria. The country is mouncases, also, in Germany, in which von tainous, and watered by several small rivprecedes the name of a commoner. The ers, among which, the Lech and the Iller origin of this signification of von was, take their rise here. There is much wood probably, that the early noblemen were and good pasturage, and the raising of called by their Christian name, with the cattle is the chief occupation of the inhabaddition of the castle or village which be- itants. The corn produced is not equal longed to them. Before family names be- to the consumption. There are cotton came settled (see Names), it was very cus- manufactures here, and the making tomary, on the European continent, to call wooden ware, and the building of boats any person, commoner or nobleman, by and houses (the latter exported to Switzerhis Christian name, with the addition of land), employ a great number of the inthe place in which he resided, either habitants. The chief town (Bregenz) has changed into an adjective, or with the 2500 inhabitants. preposition of, de, von. By degrees, this Vorstius, Conrad, an eminent divine, became a distinction of the nobility in born at Cologne, in 1569, was the son of Germany, but not in Holland.

a dyer, who secretly seceded to the Prot-. VOŃDEL, Joost van der, one of the most estant communion. Conrad was sent to celebrated poets of Holland, of which, Haerlem and Heidelberg, at which unihowever, he was not a native, was born versity he was created a doctor of diviniat Cologne, in 1587. His parents, who ty. After giving lectures on theology, at were Anabaptists, removed to Holland Geneva, in 1596, be accepted a professorwhile he was a child, and the poet him- ship at Steinfurt, until 1610, when he reself afterwards went over to the Arminians ceived a call to succeed Arminius in the (q. v.), and finally died in the bosom of the professorship of theology at Leyden. Roman Catholic church, in 1659. Nature Having accepted this offer, he soon behad endowed him with extraordinary tal- came involved in the controversial war ents, and he derived little aid from edu- which raged in the Netherlands; and the cation. lle has been called the Dutch Gomarists, taking advantage of a book Shakspeare. Devoting himself entirely which he had published, entitled Tractato the cultivation of poetry, Vondel first tus Theologicus de Deo, accused him of learned Latin and French in the thirtieth heresy. James I, on receiving the book year of his age, read the Roman and of Vorstius, drew up a catalogue of hereFrench writers, and endeavored to supply sies from it, which he sent to his minister the deficiencies of his early education. at the Hague, with an order to certify to His works display genius and elevated the states how much he detested those alimagination; but the language is often in- leged errors. He also caused his book to

His poems compose nine vols. be burnt in London, and informed the quarto, and include metrical versions of states, who said they would inquire into the Psalms, of Virgil and of Ovid, to- the case, that if they did not dismiss gether with satires and tragedies. Among Vorstius, none of his subjects should visit the latter, Palamedes, an allegorical piece Leyden. The appearance of a work, by relating to the death of Barneveldt, and some of his disciples, entitled De Officio the Conquest of Amsterdam, are consid- Christiani Hominis, which contained some ered the masterpieces of Dutch tragedy. anti-Trinitarian doctrines, although formalCamper has treated of Vondel, in a Latin ly disclaimed by Vorstius, excited against prize essay, published at Leyden, in 1818. him so much odium, that he was banished,

VORARLBERG; a mountainous district, by the states of Holland, from their terrinow forming a circle of the Tyrol, sur- tories, (See Arminius, and Arminians.) rounded by the Tyrol, Switzerland, lake He lived for more than two years in seConstance, and Bavaria. It has its own crecy, frequently changing his abode, in separate constitution, and consists of the fear for his life, and died, in 1622, at the lordships of Bregenz, Feldkirch, Pludenz, age of fifty-three. and Hohenems, with a population of VORTICES OF DESCARTES. (See Des86,754 souls, on 1578 square miles. The cartes.) Vorarlberg lordships derive their name Vosges; a chain of mountains in the from the Arlberg, or Adlersberg (Eagle east of France, extending from north to

correct,

a

south, nearly parallel with the Rhine, and this respect, with Schlegel's translation forming a continuation of the Jura moun- of Shakspeare. In 1782, the state of his tains, which separate France from Swit- health obliged him to go to Eutin. His zerland. Beginning in the vicinity of Bel- disputes with Heyne continued. In 1793, fort, in the ancient Suodgau, they divide appeared his translation of the Iliad, and Alsace from Lorraine, and, bending to- that of the Odyssey, in a new form, in wards the German provinces on the Rhine, which, however, it did not please so much they terminate, towards the north-east, on as before, being more simple. Besides the Rhine and the Moselle, under the many philological and antiquarian works, name of Hundsrück (q. v.), and towards he published an idyl in the epic form, the north-west, in the grand duchy of Lux- called Luise, in 1795. It had previously emburg, under the name of the Ardennes. appeared in 1783, but was now produced Alsace, situated on the German side of with improvements

. It is much liked by the Vosges; has been in the possession of many Germans : others consider it an unFrance for a century; yet the language is fortunate attempt to give an epic characstill German. The highest summits at- ter to the events of an ordinary life. In tain an elevation of nearly 4500 feet above 1799, appeared his translation of the whole the surface of the sea. They have a gen- of Virgil into German. In 1801, he added tle declivity, and, on the eastern and a volume of pastoral poems to a new edisouthern sides, are often covered with tion of Luise, and, in 1802, four volumes vineyards. Great part of the Vosges of lyric poems, to which was added the mountains are covered with forests; and Zeitmessung Deutscher Sprache, a work they are rich in game, wild fowl, silver, of considerable importance. In 1802, his copper, iron, lead, coal and antimony. German Homer appeared anew, in an They also contain excellent pasturage; improved form. In 1802, he went to Jeand the inhabitants breed many cattle, na; in 1805, to Heidelberg, in order to and make large quantities of cheese, aid the new organization of the university. known under the name of Munster cheese. Here appeared, in 1806, his German HorThe nl, Lauter, Moselle, Meurthe, Saar ace, Hesiod, and Orpheus the Argonaut; and Saonne rise in this chain of moun- in 1807, a new edition of Luise, and of his tains.

Homer; in 1808, a German Theocritus, Vosges ; a department in the eastern Bion and Moschus; in 1810, Tibullus and part of France. (See Department.) Lygdamus, in German ; in 1811, the Lat

Voss, John Henry, was born in 1751, in text of the same, prepared from manuin Mecklenburg. Till his fourteenth year, scripts. In 1814, he published a muchhe was educated in the small town of improved edition of his German Homer. Penzlin. In 1766, he was placed at the In 1821, appeared his translation of Arisschool of New Brandenburg. He early tophanes ; in 1824, a translation of Aradevoted himself to the classical languages, tus. He also undertook to translate, with and made verses. Being without funds his sons Henry (died in 1822) and Abrato support him at the university, he ac- ham, the whole of Shakspeare, of which cepted the place of tutor in a private fami- the three first volumes appeared in 1819. ly, in order to obtain the necessary means. This translation cannot stand a compariAfter having been occupied with instruct- son with Schlegel's. In 1823, Voss came ing five or six hours a day, he found rec- out, in opposition to Creuzer (q. v.), with reation in Greek, music and poetry. In bis Antisymbolik (Stuttgart, 1823). The 1772, he went to Göttingen, where he second volume was published by his son joined a society of young men, at the head Abraham, from manuscript, in 1826. Alof which were Boje and Bürger, and most at the same time, he made an attack which has since become important in the on Catholic mysticism, principally in conhistory of German literature. Voss studied sequence of his friend count Stolberg betheology, which, however, he soon gave coming a Catholic. He died in 1826, in up, in order to devote himself entirely to Heidelberg. (See Paulus's Lebens- und philology. Heyne was one of his chief Todeskunden von J. H. Voss, 1826.). His teachers ; but with him he quarrelled. In translations are the best existing of classic 1778, he was appointed rector at Otten- authors, and have contributed much to dorf. In 1781, after the publication of the advancement of German literature ; several treatises, he produced his German while Schlegel's translations of ShakOdyssey, a work which, whatever may speare and other modern writers, and his be the opinion of some respecting it, has treatises on romantic literature, have prerendered this grand poem national with vented the classical element from becomthe Germans, and may be compared, in ing excessive.

Vossius, or Vos, Gerard John, a cele- that country, where he died in 1688. brated writer on criticism and philology, Besides editing the works of Scylax, Jusborn near Heidelberg, in 1577, studied at tin the historian, Catullus, Pomponius Dordrecht and Leyden. At the age of Mela, St. Barnabas, and St. Ignatius, he iwenty, he commenced his literary career published Dissertatio de vera Àtate Munby the publication of a Latin panegyric di; De Septuaginta Interpretibus eorumque on prince Maurice of Nassau, and, two Translatione et Chronologia Dissertationes, years after, became director of the college in which he defended the chronology of of Dordrecht. In 1614, the chair of phi- the Septuagint version against the Helosophy was offered him at Steinfurt; brew text of the Old Testament; De Pobut he preferred the direction of the ematum Cantu et Viribus Rhythmi, &c. theological college established at Leyden; Isaac Vossius was, while in England, and, atter having occupied that post four intimate with St. Evremond and the years, amidst the storms of religious con- duchess of Mazarin ; but though he lived troversy, he procured the more peaceable much in the society of the great, his appointment of professor of rhetoric and behavior was sometimes rude, and his chronology. Having declared himself in language by no means decent. In his favor of the Remonstrants, he became writings, he maintained extravagant paraobnoxious to the prevailing party in the doxes, while he was generally considchurch; and, at the synod of Tergou, or ered as an infidel in religion. Hence Gouda, in 1620, he was deprived of his Charles II said he was a strange divine, office. Through the influence of arch- for he believed every thing but the Bible. bishop Laud, the patron of Arminianism VOTIacks. (See Finns.) iu England, Vossius was indemnified for VOTIVE TABLES are those tablets which his loss by a prebendal stall at Canterbury, give information of the circumstances with permission to continue his residence connected with offerings deposited in a in the Netherlands. In 1633, he was temple in consequence of vows. invited to Amsterdam, to occupy the Vouet, Simon, an eminent French chair of history, at the schola illustris, and painter, was born at Paris, in 1582, and continued there till his death, in 1649. was bred up under his father, who was Among his numerous works may be also an artist. Hle accompanied the specified the treatises De Origine Ido- French embassy at Constantinople, and lolatriæ; De Historicis Græcis, et de drew the grand seignior, from memory, Historicis Latinis ; De Poetis Græcis et after an audience in the train of the amLatinis; De Scientiis Mathematicis ; De bassador. He then visited Venice and Quatuor Artibus popularibus ;. Historia Rome, at which latter capital he acquired Pelagiana ; Institutiones Historica, Gram- great distinction. He remained in Italy maticæ, Poetice; Etymologicon Lingue tourteen years, when he was sent for by Latina; De Vitiis Sermonis ; De Philo- Louis XIII, to work in his palaces, ani sophorum Sectis. A collective edition of furnished some of the apartments of the his works appeared in 6 vols., folio (Am- Louvre, the palace of Luxembourg, and sterdam, 1695-1701).

the galleries of cardinal Richelieu, and Vossius, Isaac, son of the preceding, other public places, with his works. He was born at Leyden, in 1618, and, pos- was a good colorist, but had little genius sessing great natural talents, acquired for grand composition, although France early reputation among the learned. At was certainly indebted to him for introthe age of twenty-one, he published an ducing a better taste. Most of the sucedition of the Periplus of Scylax, with a ceeding French painters who gained Latin version, and

Christina, distinction, were bred under him, inqueen of Sweden, invited him to Stock- cluding Le Brun, Perrier, Mignard, Le holm, and chose him for her preceptor in Sueur, Dorigny, Du Fresnoy, and others. the Greek language. His quarrels with He died in 1649. Saumaise having rendered the court of VOULGARIANS. (See Bulgaria.) Sweden disagreeable to him, he quitted it Voussoirs; the wedge-shaped stones in 1649, and returned to his native country, which form an arch. where he employed himself in the pro- Vow. “A vow," says the Catholic Dicduction of various learned works. In tionnaire de Théologie (Toulouse, 1817), 1670, he visited England, and was ad- " is a promise made to God of a thing mitted to the degree of LL. D. at Oxford; which we think to be agreeable to him, and, in 1673, having been présented to and which we are not, on other grounds, a canonry, at Windsor, by Charles II, he obliged to render to him. This is what passed the remaining part of his life in the theologians understand by it when