they are the only agents, with which we appeared with advantage as a public are acquainted, capable of fulfilling all speaker. In 1791, he published his dethe requisites. How or where these istical work, entitled Les Ruines, ou Mebodies exist, at what depths, in what ditations sur les Révolutions des Empires. quantity, and how accessible to water, are After the conclusion of the sessions of questions that we cannot solve; but it the national assembly, he accompanied is a curious fact, that water is always M. Pozzo di Borgo to Corsica, where he found connected with volcanoes. Vesu- had projected some agricultural improvevius, Ætna and Hecla are upon the verge ments. He made attempts to establish of the sea ; and in the vicinity of the burn- in that island the cultivation of the sugaring mountains of the Cordilleras there are cane, indigo, and other tropical plants ; lakes; and it has been observed, that but he was unsuccessful. Returning to springs and lakes suddenly dry up pre- Paris, he suffered persecution under the vious to the active eruption of a volcano. reign of terror; and, after ten months' imVolga. (See Wolga.)

prisonment, the fall of Robespierre reVOLHYNIA ; a government of the Rus- stored him to liberty. In November, sian empire, between the governments 1794, he was appointed professor of hisof Grodno and Podolia; square miles, tory at the normal school; and the course 29,300; population, about 1,500,000. While of lectures on the philosophy of history Poland was independent, Volhynia form- which he delivered, and which was pubed a province of that kingdom, which lished and translated into English, added bordered with the Ukraine on the south- considerably to his reputation. In 1795, east. The soil is fertile, producing wheat he made a voyage to the U. States of and rye, and its pasture lands are exten- America; and he would probably have sive; but a great part of the surface is settled in America, had not the prospect forest. From its frontier situation, it has of a war with France induced him to often been exposed to the evils of invasion. return home in the spring of 1798. After Since 1793, it has been in the possession the revolution which elevated Bonaparte of Russia. Volhynia was in insurrection to the consulship, he was nominated a in 1831, but shared the fate of Poland, senator; and it is said the office of second when that unfortunate country was again consul was designed for him, but his potrampled under foot by the victorious litical opinions prevented the appointbarbarians. (See Poland, and Russia.) ment from taking place. In the senate, VOLITION. (See Will.)

he coöperated with Lanjuinais, Cabanis, VOLNEY, Constantine Francis Chasse- Destutt de Tracy, Collaud, Garat, and beuf, count de, peer of France, a cele- others, whose influence was constantly brated French writer, was born at Craon, exerted in the cause of freedom. After in Brittany, in 1755. Inspired, at an the restoration, Volney, by a decree of the early age, with a desire to visit foreign fourth of June, 1814, was designated a countries in search of knowledge, he no member of the chamber of peers, where sooner became master of a small patri- he remained faithful to his principles, monial estate, than he converted it into always appearing among the ardent demoney, and embarked for the Levant, fenders of the rights

of the nation. His travelled through several parts of Egypt death took place at Paris, in 1820. Beand Syria, and, after a residence for some sides the works already mentioned, he time in a Maronite convent on mount published Simplification des Langues Libanus, for the purpose of studying the Orientales, ou Methode nouvelle et facile Oriental languages, returned to France, d'apprendre les Langues Arabe, Persane whence he had been absent more than et Turque, avec les Caractères Européens two years. The fruits of bis inquiries (1795, 8vo.); Tableau du Climat et du Sol appeared in his Voyage en Syrie et en des États Unis d'Amérique (1803, 2 vols., Egypte (2 vols., 8vo.), which was trans- 8vo.), with a Vocabulary of the Language lated into English, Dutch and German. of the Miamis; Chronologie d'Herodote This work procured him much reputa- conformé à son Texte (1808, 2 vols., 8vo.); tion; and, taking up his residence at Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire AnAuteuil, near Paris, he became intimately cienne (1814–1815, 3 vols., 8vo.). His connected with some of the most eminent Euvres complètes, with his Life, appeared among his literary contemporaries. On at Paris, in 1821, in 8 vols. the convocation of the states-general, in Volpato, Giovanni, an engraver, born at 1789, Volney was elected a deputy from Bassano, in 1733, spent his early years in exthe tiers etat of Anjou, when he em- ecuting drawings for embroidery. Having braced the cause of liberty, and frequently acquired the use of the burin, without any

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instruction, he afterwards went to Venice, state, they were conquered, and disappearwhere he executed engravings, in con- ed from history, like the other tribes of nexion with Bartolozzi, for Wagner, a Latium. picture dealer, and finally left Venice for Volta, Alessandro, descended from a Rome. Here a society of amateurs, at respectable family of Como, was born in the head of whom was Ercole Bonajuti

, that place, in 1745, and died there in had been formed for the purpose of pro- 1827. While pursuing his studies at Cocuring engravings of Raphael's works in mo, he displayed not less inclination for the Vatican. The drawings of the the poetic art than for the severe sciences, Spanish painter La Veja, in eighty sheets, and composed a fine Latin poem upon which had been prepared by a labor of physics. But he soon after devoted himthree years for cardinal Silvio Valenti, self entirely to physical inquiries, and and which had been bequeathed by the laid the foundation of his fame in two cardinal Luigi Valenti to the Vatican li- treatises, published in 1769 and 1771, in brary, were made the basis of this work. which he gave a description of a new Volpato was employed in its execution, electrical machine. In 1774, Volta beand soon became distinguished among came rector of the gymnasium in Como, the artists connected with him. The six and professor of physics, and, in 1779, sheets executed by him are of the high- was transferred to Pavia. Here he ocest merit. They reproduce, as far as is pos- cupied himself entirely with electrical sible in a small space, the impression of researches. He had previously (1777) the original, and prove how fully the art- invented the electrophorus, and bis inist appreciated the pictorial merits of vention of the electroscope was also an those great paintings, by his masterly important improvement. (See Electricity) distribution of light and shade. The His observations upon the bubbles which most skilful union of the burin with the arise from stagnant water, led him also to dry-point could alone have enabled him some valuable discoveries in regard to to accomplish this

difficult task in a work gases. The electrical pistol, the eudiomof such extent. The publication of Ra- eter, the lamp with inflammable air, the phael's loggie and arabesques placed Vol- electrical condenser, and other inventions, pato at the head of a school of design, are among his claims to renown. He and gave him the honor of having ren- next turned his attention to some of the dered the productions of that great mas- atmospherical phenomena, as the nature ter more generally known, and of having of hail, &c., and subsequently increased awakened a purer taste among engravers. his reputation by the discovery of the Accuracy of execution, and attention to Voltaic pile (see Galvanism), and, in 1782, the pictorial effect, so far as it depends made a tour through France, Germany, not upon coloring, but upon light and England and Holland, on which occasion shade, are the distinguishing merits of he was treated with great respect by Halhis school

, from which proceeded Ra- ler, Joseph II and Voltaire. On his rephael Morghen (q. v.), at first the pupil, turn to Italy, he introduced the cultivaafterwards the friend, and finally the son- tion of the potato into Lombardy. In in-law of Volpato. Gavin Hamilton, the 1794, he received the Copleian medal companion of his Socratic suppers, at from the royal society of London, on acwhich Canova also used to be present, count of his paper upon the condenser; was not without influence upon the taste and, in 1801, his electric apparatus atof the artist. Volpato died in 1803, and tracted so much notice in France that the Canova honored the memory of his first consul made him a present of 6000 friend and benefactor by a relief, which francs. He was subsequently deputy is placed in the hall of the church of the from the university of Pavia to the conApostles in Rome.

sulta held at Lyons, and Napoleon conVolscı; an Ausonian tribe, which re- ferred upon him the cross of the legion sided, before the foundation of Rome, in the of honor, and the order of the iron ancient Latium (now Campagna di Roma). crown. In 1815, the emperor Francis ap; They had a republican government. Livy pointed him director of the philosophical calls them the eternal enemies of Rome. faculty in the university of Pavia. As a Their principal city was Antium, the ru- man, Volta was simple, modest and reliins of which are to be seen in the neigh- gious, a good father and citizen. Antinoborhood of cape Angio. Corioli, from ri edited a collection of his works (Opere which Coriolanus derived his surname, di Volta, Florence, 1816, 5.vols.), and prowas another city of theirs. After having fessor Zuccala published a eulogy upon several times endangered the Roman him (Elogio di Volta) in 1827.

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Voltaic PILE. (See Galvanism.) him a quiet residence on his estate, whiere VOLTAIRE, Francis Marie Arouet de. Voltaire became intimate with the elder If any man ever showed the natural sov- Caumartin, who awakened in him a great ereignty of the intellect, and its superiori- admiration of Henry IV, and of Sully, ty to all earthly splendor, it was this dis- and gave him a lively idea of the court tinguished man, who, in a nation, and of Louis XIV. Hence originated the at a time, when the learned and scientific Henriade and the Siècle de Louis XIV. were considered in the light of upper do- In 1716, he was imprisoned in the Bastile, mesties of the great, undertook to secure on the charge of having written a satire for them an independent station. His in- against the government. He remained fluence was felt throughout Europe; and in confinement a year and a half, and, in never did a man, by the force of his writ- this situation, planned a poem upon the ings, obtain such power over his nation. league, the result of which was the HenVoltaire was born at Chatenay, near Par- riade. He likewise improved his tragedy is, r'eb. 20, 1694. His father, Francis Edipus, which was brought upon the stage Arouet, notary of the Châtelet, and finally in 1718, and was performed forty-five treasurer of the chamber of accounts, times in one year. Meanwhile, the poet possessed considerable property, so that had been released from prison in consehe was enabled to give bis son an excel- quence of the real author of the satire lent education. Voltaire received his having disclosed himself, but had been first instruction in the Jesuits' college of banished from Paris. Now, however, in Louis XIV., under Porée and Le Jay, consequence of the regent, the duke of Here he displayed talents which warrant- Orleans, being delighted with the Edied the highest expectations. In his third pus, he was allowed to return. His father year he was able to repeat the fables of himself was so much pleased with the repLa Fontaine, and, somewhat later, recited, resentation of this play, that he embraced from memory, a poem of Rousseau (Lá his son with tears in his eyes, and from Moisade), before the celebrated Ninon de this time left him to his own inclination. l'Enclos, who was so much pleased with Voltaire now fell passionately in love with the talent of the boy, that she left him a the marchioness of Villars, so that his atlegacy of 2000 livres to purchase a library. tention was withdrawn, for a time, from According to the custom of the time, he poetry ; but, having recovered from this was obliged to leave the family name to passion, he wrote the play of Artémire, the eldest son, and therefore assumed which was unsuccessful. It was afterthat name which has since become so fa- wards brought upon the stage, in 1725, mous. His father wished to see him a under the name of Marianne, when it lawyer and advocate ; but his love of liter- met with much applause, and was often ature and general study did not allow him repeated. In 1722, he accompanied madlong to devote himself to the law. He ame de Rupelmonde to Brussels, where wrote poetry continually, and cultivated he became acquainted with Jean Baptiste his talents in the company of men of Rousseau ; but the characters of the two much accomplishment and wit, but of were so different, that their acquaintance little principle; such as Chaulieu, the terminated in a complete separation. In marquis de la Fare, marshal Villars, the 1723, Voltaire was engaged in completing grand prior of Vendome, the prince of the Henriade, which, about this period, apConti

, and others. Here he caught the peared for the first time in London, under tone of polished society which distin- ihe name of the League, but without the guishes his writings, and which greatly consent of Voltaire, and in a very impercontributed to his influence. His father fect state. The president Hénault, and was displeased with his mode of life, and other friends, disturbed him so much by entreated the marquis of Chateauneuf, their criticisms upon this production, that French minister to Holland, to take the he threw it into the fire. Hénault snatchyoung Voltaire with him as a page. He ed it out, with these words : “ Your poem consented ; but Voltaire fell in love with is like your hero: notwithstanding his the daughter of madame Noyer, a refu- faults, he was a great king, and the best gee in Holland, and was therefore sent of men." In 1726, Voltaire was again back to his family. His father would re- imprisoned, at the age of thirty-two ceive him into favor again only on condi- years, in the Bastile. He had offended tion of his resuming the study of the law. the chevalier de Rohan, a proud young A friend of his father, monsieur Caumar- nobleman, who, in consequence, caused tin, at length released him from the ne- him to be beaten by his servant. Voltaire cessity of pursuing this study, by offering now learned to fence, and challenged the chevalier, whose relations thereupon pro- was afterwards taken under the protere cured an order for his imprisonment. At tion of the pope himself (Benedict XIV), the end of six months, he was released and has remained upon the stage with at the intercession of the marchioness de the reputation of one of the best French Prie, the favorite of the regent, who ad- productions of its kind. His Mérope (1743) mired his poetical talents ; but he was was the first French drama which produced obliged to leave the kingdom. He went a strong effect without the aid of love. On to England, where his Henriade was pub- the representation of this piece, the custom lished by subscription, at the request of was introduced of calling for the appearking George I and the princess of Wales. ance of the writer. Before this time, From this he obtained considerable emol- Voltaire had gained the favor of the court ument. He became acquainted with by a political service. He corresponded many men of rank, and distinguished with the crown-prince of Prussia, afterscholars, but gave such license to his wit, wards Frederic the Great, who had a that it is said Pope's mother was some great fondness for French literature. times driven away, by his conversation, When Frederic ascended the throne, in from her son's table. In 1728, he received 1740, an alliance with him was considered permission to return to France, where he desirable. Voltaire was sent to Berlin, put his acquisitions into a lottery. By. and discovered the ground upon which this, as well as by other fortunate specu- Frederic had declined the advances which lations (he traded under the name of Du had been made him. The alliance was Moulin, and sent ships to Africa), he ob- concluded as soon as France had declared tained great wealth, so that, after he came herself against Austria. Voltaire now deinto possession of the estates of his father sired, as the reward of his services, some and brother, his income amounted to marks of favor from the court, to facilitate nearly 130,000 livres, which he employed his admission to the academy, which had in a praiseworthy manner: he particular- been opposed by his numerous enemies. ly aided youthful literary talent. In 1730, He was therefore invited to compose a he brought the tragedy of Brutus upon piece for the celebration of the nuptials the stage; but, notwithstanding much of the dauphin, and wrote the Princess of merit, it did not please universally. His Navarre. The piece was approved, if talent for dramatic poetry was not by the public, at least by the court; doubted; and Fontenelle and La Motte and his reward was the place of gentiladvised him not to employ his genius homme ordinaire, and historian of France. any more in this manner. His answer As such, he planned a history of the then was the Zaire, a play, which produced existing war of 1741. It was not, howa deep and universal impression, and is ever, until 1746 that he received a place still a favorite on the French stage. in the academy. In the mean time, he He afterwards attacked the pretensions of was persecuted with lampoons of all the church with such vehemence, in his kinds, so that he withdrew, with madame Lettres philosophiques, that the parliament du Chatelet, to the court of king Stanisof Paris condemned the book to be burnt; laus, at Luneville. During this time were and an order was issued for the arrest of produced his tragedies Sémiramis, Orestes, the author. He therefore passed some and Rome Sauvée, the subject of which years in concealment at Cirey, near Vassi, was the conspiracy of Catiline. After the in Champagne, where he was treated death of madame du Chatelet, in 1749, with the greatest kindness by the mistress Voltaire returned to Paris, where he conof the estate, the marchioness du Chat- tributed much to form the celebrated actor elet (q. v.), and wrote his Elémens de la Lekain. Frederic the Great had hitherto Philosophie de Newton, to make his coun- vainly invited him to Potsdam; but being trymen acquainted with the great discov- told that Frederic had called Arnaud the eries of the English philosopher. He rising and him the setting sun, his selfwished, as he expressed it, to exhibit the love was so much touched that he sprang Briareus in miniature. But scientific out of bed, and exclaimed, “Frederic may labors were by no means so well adapted judge of affairs of state, but not of me! to his powers as the culture of the belles- Yes ; I will go and show him that I am lettres. He soon returned to poetry, and not setting yet.” He went to Potsdam in wrote, in 1736, his Alzire, and, in 1741, June, 1750. Frederic treated him with his Mohammed. The attacks in the last the greatest distinction: in a moment of upon fanaticism displeased the clergy, enthusiasm, he even kissed his hand. and, by the advice of the minister, cardi- Voltaire occupied an apartment under nal Fleury, he withdrew the piece; yet it that of the king, with permission to visit

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him at certain hours, and had a table and reigned like a petty prince among his equipage at his command. He spent every subjects. Here he erected a new and day two hours with the king, and revised elegant church, with the inscription Deo his literary productions, when, as he him- ererit Voltaire. A decided enemy of tyrself said, he never failed to praise the anny and oppression, he afforded aid and good, and quietly to strike out the bad. protection to many persecuted persons; But this friendship continued hardly a among others, to the family of Jean Calas, year. A quarrel between Maupertuis, who had fallen a victim to fanaticism. At president of the Berlin academy, and a that time, he wrote his masterly treatise mathematician named Konig, in which upon toleration. The granddaughter of Voltaire took part, drew upon him the the great Corneille also experienced bis displeasure of Frederic, who caused his bounty. In the numerous writings which Akakia, a satire upon Maupertuis, to be he composed in this retreat, his free spirit burnt in the presence of the writer, and employed the weapons of ridicule, and sent him bis dismission. Voltaire return- the boldest eloquence, against all which ed to the king the chamberlain's key and contravened his ideas of freedom and inthe cross of the order which had been dependence. To the clergy he was parconferred on him, with some verses, in ticularly hostile, on account of their intolwhich he compared himself to a lover erance and persecuting spirit. But he who sends back the portrait of his mis- often injured the cause of religion itself tress; but the king soon restored them. while he attacked its servants. His moVoltaire pow made a visit to the duchess tives, moreover, were not always of the of Gotha. During his absence, Mauper- highest kind. In 1757, the first edition tuis succeeded in depriving him of the of his works appeared, prepared under his favor of the king, and he concluded to own eye. It reconciled him with Fredreturn to France. When he reached eric the Great. This monarch renewed Frankfort on the Maine, he was stopped his correspondence with Voltaire, and by order of Frederic, because he had sent him his own bust, of porcelain, with with him various productions of the king, the inscription Viro immortali. The emwho feared that he would use them to his press Catharine of Russia sent him, likeprejudice. He was likewise compelled wise, splendid presents, accompanied by to resign the chamberlain's key, his order, the most flattering letters. In return for and his promise of a pension of 22,000 an ivory box, made by herself, and for her livres. The breach between Frederic instructions (prepared for the direction of and Voltaire was now irreparable. Vol- a law commission which she had instifaire wished to reside in Paris; but his tuted), he sent her a bracelet netted by his Pucelle d'Orléans had excited so much own hands. In 1769, a medal was stampdispleasure, that he was not allowed to ed in honor of him, the inscription on remain in the capital. He now resided for which was a verse taken from the Henrisome years at Colmar, where he wrote ade : Il ote aur nations le bandeou de l'erthe Orphan of China, and bought a coun- Some French literati, together try seat in the neighborhood of Geneva. with Frederic, erected a statue to him, Jean Jacques Rousseau sent him his well- with the inscription Statue erigée à Volknown treatise which had gained the taire par les hommes de lettres ses compaprize of the academy of Dijon. Voltaire triotes; and Louis XV said, “ He deserves returned him an answer which, among it." All strangers of distinction who many flattering remarks, contained the passed by Ferney stopped to testify their following sentence: “When I read your esteem for this remarkable man. Joseph treatise, I desire to creep upon all-fours.” II only did not visit him. Nevertheless, This ridicule made the author of Emile Voltaire was by no means happy. Too his irreconcilable enemy. Soon after, much accustomed to the constant admiraVoltaire took part in the political conten- tion of the world, he soon became weary tions then prevailing in Geneva ; and, of his quiet life, and went, even in his adhaving become involved in disputes with vanced age (February, 1778), once more many of the principal people, he thought to Paris. Here he found many admirers, it best to leave the place. He therefore who adored bim, and many bitter enepurchased the estate of Ferney, in the Pays mies. He was sensible of the dislike ende Gex, where he resided the rest of his tertained towards him; and, therefore, life, with his niece, madame Denis. He when stopped by the officers of the cusdrew manufacturers, and other settlers, toms, with the inquiry if he had any coninto bis district, obtained for them, through traband goods with him, he replied, “No, his influence, important advantages, and no; there is nothing contraband here but

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