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developement. His first separate work on the subject was a collection of some simple rules,' by which parliamentary committees as well as capitalists might be guided in forming an estimate of a proposed road. Formed on the dawn of railway practice, the opinions of this brochure were unsound. The Doctor had himself the good sense to repudiate his raw theories. But unfortunately the 'litera scripta' of his fallacious rules outlived their influence, and day after day was his luckless work quoted against him, to the infinite amusement of the parliamentary bar, and amidst the suppressed titters of practical engineers who were only too well pleased to behold the discomfiture of the man of theory. Mr. Bidder was the mathematical witness usually opposed to the Doctor. As soon as the Doctor was called for examination, Mr. Bidder would rise, and present the counsel, whose duty it was to crossexamine the popular mathematician, with a handsomely bound copy of the 'rules.' Instantly a titter would rise amongst the habitués of the committee-rooms. Dr. Lardner would turn crimson with irritation, and strangers would be at a loss to surmise what was going on beneath the surface. In another minute a barrister, smiling amiably, would begin by asking I believe, Dr. Lardner, you are the author of a little work containing a few "simple rules" on railways?' 'Yes, sir; you know all about that, sir,' the Doctor would answer; 'you asked me all about that ten times yesterday.' 'Ah, but, Dr. Lardner,' the tormentor would continue, that was not before this committee. Indeed, I must beg you to give me a little information about your "rules.""

In judging Parliament for its shortcomings and errors in respect of railways, sight must never be lost of the

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difficulties under which it acted. And before the censor condemns the system which gave us our iron roads, he would do well to reflect that there is no country which is so well supplied with the new means of locomotion - no country where iron roads are so plentiful, trains so numerous and rapid, and fares so low. The gravest fault committed by our system in its early career was extravagance, which reduced countless humble families to enrich a few great persons, or rear colossal fortunes for a few hundreds of attorneys and adventurers. In 1849* the United States had, completed and in use, 6,565 miles of railway. Of this 2,842 miles (the expense of which is accurately known) cost £23,104,909, or about £8,129 per mile. It is assumed that the remaining 3,723 miles were made at the same rate of cost: the expense of 6,565 miles may be computed £53,386,885; whereas the 5,000 miles of railway in the United Kingdom cost £200,000,000. The difference of these two last sums is so vast that, after making every allowance for the cheapness of land in America, and the presence in the United States of numerous inducements to, as well as facilities for, the construction of railways, no impartial observer can be otherwise than struck with the scandalous prodigality of British expenditure. Still it must be remembered that we were the pioneers in railway developement, being the first to test the merits of the system. Profiting by our experience, other countries avoided our mistakes.

The American States have a greater length of railway

Railway Economy: a Treatise on the New Art of Transport, its Management, Prospects, and Relations, Commercial, Financial, and

VOL. I.

U

Social. By Dionysius Lardner,
D.C.L., &c. Taylor, Walton, and
Maberly.

than ourselves, both actually and proportionately to their population. But from her extent of territory, America is of course by no means so well supplied with lines as Great Britain. And by every other mode of calculation -by proportion of length of railway to extent of territory, by proportion of railway capital to the population, or by proportion of railway capital to extent of territory Great Britain is richer in railways than any nation of the world.

It may not, however, be presumed that our railway system is incapable of improvement. An instructive writer (Mr. W. Bridges Adams) has recently exposed its mechanical defects. In respect of management it has also grave deficiencies; and it seems scarcely credible that the present generation will pass away without making some attempts for their amendment. The best authorities on 'railway interests' (and the term includes the interests of the public as well as of shareholders) are unanimous in avowing the inefficiency of railway management by directorates elected from the shareholders. In the ruinous contests of rival lines, lowering their fares in the hope of reducing each other to bankruptcy, the incompetence of such controlling boards has been signally and frequently displayed. The competition of two railways working through the same tracts of country has on many occasions given rise to internecine war between their directorates. Increasing in vehemence, the commercial strife has degenerated into personal quarrel, and directors have not hesitated to sacrifice their dividends and embarrass their resources for the mere pleasure of inflicting injury on their antagonists. Such battles, regarded from one point of view, are amusing: but the gloomy reflection they

suggest to prudent observers is, that the money squandered by directors is taken from the pockets of shareholders, who regard with dismay the policy to which they are sacrificed. A renewal of these exhibitions of folly would be obviated if companies, instead of working their lines themselves, would let them to farmers, who, like the farmers of turnpike roads and bridges, should pay a certain fixed of variable rent to the shareholders, and retain the surplus receipts. If such a plan were adopted, a new class of business men would speedily arise, who would see their advantage in providing in the best possible way for the public convenience, and would be chary of engaging in contests, the entire cost of which would fall on themselves. By such a system, shareholders would be secure of their dividends, and the public secure of good accommodation. The only individuals who would suffer by the reform are the gentlemen who at present play with money which is not their own.

Besides this wise measure of amendment, a proposal for a railway bank, undertaking to discharge the functions of bank and also of clearing house to all the Railway companies of the United Kingdom, has of late been a frequent subject of discussion with the most influential personages of the railway market.

This system has already been adopted with advantage on some few lines in Switzerland.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM OF RAILWAY PROPULSION.

Remarkable Episode in the History of Railways-Correction of Nomenclature - Objects of this Chapter - General Modes of Locomotion-Constant rivalry between Locomotive and Stationary Steampower-Liverpool and Manchester Railway -Walker and Rastrick's Report Stephenson and Locke's Reply-Triumph of the Locomotive - Renewal of the Stationary Plan in the Atmospheric form — Early Inventors - Papin - Medhurst - Features of his Schemes Vallance - Pinkus - Clegg - Jacob and Joseph Samuda - Private Experiments Trial of their Plan on the Thames Junction Railway - Description of the Apparatus - Proposal to apply it in IrelandSmith and Barlow's Report- Application on the Kingstown and Dalkey Line - Arguments in favour of the Plan- Robert Stephenson's attention called to it in reference to the Chester and Holyhead Railway-His Report - Public Interest excited - Croydon Railway Parliamentary Committee The Railway Mania Appointment of a Committee of the House of Commons to enquire into the Merits of the Plan — Their Report in its favour — Culminating point of the History Contests in Parliament — Application of the Atmospheric System in practice — Thames Junction Line-Kingstown and Dalkey Line Croydon Line - South Devon Line - Paris and St. Germain Line Summary of Results - Mechanical Efficiency Economy-General Applicability to Railway Traffic - Reasons for its Abandonment Conclusion.

THE

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HE attempt that was made some years ago to introduce the atmospheric system of propulsion upon railways, forms such a remarkable episode in their history, that it deserves a somewhat extended notice.

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The invention here referred to is often termed the

Atmospheric Railway,' but this is a misnomer. In the

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