be cultivated without them, it is as injudicious as a tax on beasts of labour. The tax on slaves, says Smith, falls wholly on the planters, as they are at the same time owners and farmers; but we are of a different opinion, and to us it appears clear, that a tax on slaves falls ultimately on the consumers of the articles furnished by the planter.

A tax on servants is a tax on expenditure, and therefore assimilates with a tax on articles of consumption: this tax bears heaviest on the middle classes.

The conveyance of property of all kinds by inheritance, and of immovables, as land, houses, &c. between persons living, is taxed in certain countries, and, in the first case, may be so directly; whereas, in the second case, it can be so only indirectly, by means of stamps and registration.

Inheritances are frequently taxed, but in different proportions, according to the relationship of the heirs and other

circumstances.

In some countries, the charge of stamps is regulated according to the nature of the act; in others, according to the value of the property transferred, and in some places, as in Holland, the duties on stamps and registration is determined either way according to circumstances.

The tax or duty on the conveyance of property by will, falls ultimately, as well as immediately, on the person to whom the property is transmitted. The duty on the sale of lands, and old built houses falls altogether on the seller; that on newly built houses falls on the buyer. The duty on stamps and registration of contracts for loans of money, falls wholly on the lender; the duties of like kind in law proceedings falls entirely on the parties pleading; they diminish for both parties the value of the disputed object.

In general, duties upon the transfer of property, of whatever kind, are more or less disadvantageous, as they encroach upon the capital of those who entertain none but productive labourers, to increase the revenue of the Sovereign, who entertains scarcely any but the unproductive class. Taxes of this kind, however assessed, are always injurious.

The stamp duty on playing cards, though classed with the duties above mentioned, are of a very different nature.

In general the traveller should observe whether, in the country he examines or would describe, there are any duties or taxes imposed upon the transfer of property; and if so, in what cases, under what circumstances, and under what conditions, is the assessment made; what this kind of

tax produces annually, and its consequences on the general prosperity of the country, or on that of certain classes, or on particular branches of industry; in a word, all the details which may be interesting on this subject.

The salaries of workmen are every where regulated by the demand for labour and the mean price of provisions. So long as these remain the same, a direct tax on the price of labour can have no other effect than that of raising it a little; but there are cases in which such a tax is most injurious and absurd; notwithstanding which, it exists in several countries. As it is differently imposed in different countries, it is necessary to observe how it is regulated; what proportion it bears to the salary; whether every kind of labour be taxed alike or differently, and the reason of such diversity; whether some kinds of labour are quite exempt from taxation, and which; on whom the principal weight of the tax falls; what it produces annually; its effects on industry in general, and on certain branches in particular.

The taxes which bear indistinctly on all kinds of revenue are a Capitation tax, and the taxes on articles of consumption. With regard to a capitation tax,-having already mentioned it, we will merely add, that it rarely produces so much as was expected from it.

As for taxes on articles of consumption we have spoken of them generally under the article Excise. Sect. COMMERCE. We shall, however, give in this place, a few more details on the subject. The distribution made by Adam Smith, between objects of necessity and those of luxury, appears to us hardly admissable. He calls strong li quors, beer, and wine, in countries where the latter is the ordinary beverage, objects of luxury; for, says he, "a man may abstain from these without incurring the slightest blame." This is true, but for a porter in London, beer is as necessary as the shirt on his back. Hume defines luxury "Great refinement in the satisfaction of the senses." We shall not, however, enter into any discussion of the various definitions of luxury. It is clear that every article of consumption is either necessary or superfluous; the extremes are well known, but it is difficult to determine where necessity ends, and superfluity begins. It is evident that a tax which bears upon objects of consumption generally, must bear upon those of absolute necessity, as well as upon those of the most refined luxury.

A tax upon objects of necessity raises the price of labour in proportion.

A tax on objects of luxury does not necessarily raise the price of labour. Adam Smith, considering porter as a luxury, says, that when the price of this article was raised it did not raise the price of labour, but this we think may be in some measure attributed to the diminution in the price of sundry other articles consumed by the working classes; a diminution resulting from the perfection and multiplication of machinery, and which allowed the labourer to consume as much porter as before, without any augmentation of his salary. In fact, workmen receive in the way of salary only as much as is necessary for their maintenance. If then any object of ordinary consumption should be raised in price, their salary must necessarily rise in proportion, unless some other object or objects are lowered in price, so that the general expenditure remains the same.

Wherever their exists a direct tax on objects of consumption, whether it be on those of absolute necessity or on objects of luxury, a note should be taken of the objects taxed, of the rate of taxation, and the sum which each furnishes annually to the treasury. How is the tax imposed; does the consumer pay an annual sum, and what, for the privilege of consuming certain commodities, or are the articles themselves taxed, while still in the hands of the merchant or dealer, before selling them to the consumer? Some objects are more advantageously taxed according to the first, and others according to the second mode. In some countries both modes exist simultaneously. The greater number of taxes and duties on objects of consumption come under the head of Custom-house and Excise dues; of which we have already spoken; for although in different countries they may bear different names, in fact they almost all belong to the one or the other class of contributions. Besides the

taxes we have mentioned there are others of greater or less importance according to particular circumstances, as, for instance, Transit dues, imposed upon merchandize which merely passes through a country. How are such dues regulated; on what kind of merchandize; when and how are they paid, and what do they furnish?

In certain countries absentees are taxed; nothing can be more just than this in every respect; but it is a kind of tax not easily determined or collected. It ought to be proportioned to the amount of revenue consumed out of the

country, and this proportion should be greater than on any other revenue, because capital exported, not only impoverishes the country to the amount of the sums exported, but, deprives it of the benefit that would accrue from its expenditure at home.

Certain countries, in certain cases, are in the habit of raising money by what is called a voluntary contribution or subscription, in lieu of certain grievous and difficultly-collected taxes. Where such is the case, note the nature of the tax which is by this means avoided; how the contribution is arranged, and the amount it furnishes.

There may be other kinds of taxes but we think we have named the principal. The reader who would study this subject should consult the works of Smith, Say, Sismondi, Malthus, Storch, &c., &c. As also the memoirs of those statesmen who have written on finance in general, or on particular departments of it.

We will now merely add that besides the partial observations to be made on each separate kind of tax, it should be noted whether or not the system be uniform for all parts of the country; and, if not, what are the provinces in which a different mode or rate of taxation obtains, together with the nature and reason of the difference; whether the taxes are collected by government officers or whether they are farmed; in the latter case, is the price fixed, or is a preference given to the highest bidder? What is required of him who farms the taxes, and what is the extent and the limits of his authority to enforce the payments? Are the farmers allowed to become monopolizers of certain commodities; and if so, of what, or is this prohibited? When the taxes are levied by government agents, how is this body organized; how many tax gatherers are there, and what is their power and their emoluments; what kind of control is exercised over this class of persons, or do they act arbitrarily?

All kinds of taxes, dues, rates, and duties of whatsoever denomination, direct or indirect, should be inquired into; the objects or persons assessed, and the effects of these taxes, &c. on the general industry of the country, or on particular branches of it; the sums furnished by each to the treasury, and the expense of collecting; whence the total net produce of the taxes is easily obtained. What are the fixed regulations and the general result, good or bad, of the system and mode of taxation established in the country?

What is the present annual revenue of the state; has it

increased or diminished, and to what amount, for the last ten, twenty, or thirty years?

Where services of any kind form part of the revenue of the government, what may be the value of these in money. Would not better service be obtained if that amount were collected in money, and expended in paying for the required service?

What supplies the greatest portion of the revenue? Are the mines of the precious metals, of diamonds, &c. the exclusive property of the sovereign, or does he merely reserve to himself a portion of the produce; in either case, what do these objects furnish annually?

Are fines and confiscations regarded as an important source of revenue; and to what may these amount annually?

Are there any state lotteries, and what do they furnish yearly?

In civilized countries the letter post is a source of revenue, and as such its produce should here be noted.

In cases where the ordinary sources of revenue are insufficient for the expenses of the state, what are the modes adopted by the government in order to procure more? Does it contract loans; and if so, what are the securities it offers, and the interest it gives? Is the government remarkable for good faith with its creditors or the reverse?

Is there a national debt; what is its amount, and that of the interest annually paid to the creditors of the state? How has this interest varied at different times; is there a sinking fund, and what is its effects in diminishing the national debt? Does the country owe any thing to any other country, and which; what is the amount of this particular debt; when and on what occasion was it incurred, and how is it paid off?

We have hitherto spoken only of government taxes; there are others that are called rates and which are local, levied by local authorities, and the produce applied to local purposes; these are generally very different in different places, and are liable to constant variation according to circumstances; their nature and every thing regarding them should be noted by the traveller who would obtain or communicate useful observations on the pecuniary burthens to which the inhabitants of a country are subject.

DEMESNES OF THE SOVEREIGN.-Besides the sources of revenue already enumerated, the sovereign, in all