sensible by little connecting, though separate, words; in others, by prefixes and postfixes; in a third, by inflections or systematically arranged changes in the terminations of the principal words, whether nouns or verbs. Some languages are direct in their construction, the words being collocated in the simple and natural order in which the ideas are formed; others are more or less transpositive, the natural order of the words being wholly or partially reversed. The language of some nations abounds in tropes and metaphors, and is therefore highly poetical; one idea being expressed by awakening another, in which the relations are not only analogous, but more evident; the language of other nations again is prosaic and positive. We allude to the common spoken language of a people; that of savages is often very poetical without aiming at poetry. Proverbs or proverbial expressions, being the wisdom of ages, can only be found among an old people, and often throw considerable light upon their history and ancient manners. It is generally believed that proverbs are more common with the inhabitants of warm than of cold climates, but this we hold to be an error. It is the long existence of a people, and the multiplicity of the relations in which they stand to men and things, which give rise to proverbs. In highly-civilized countries proverbial expressions are confined to the people; but to return.

The ideology or structure of languages, should be particularly noticed by travellers when competent to do so: their idiomatic expressions and grammatical system should be fully explained, and their peculiarities pointed out, or their resemblance to other languages clearly shown. Sometimes the ideology of two languages is essentially the same, though their etymology has no connexion; and sometimes the reverse of this is observable. The phonology is the most variable of all the characteristics of languages.

The object, we have said, is to endeavour to throw light upon the obscure history of mankind. When a traveller, however, has not the knowledge necessary for entering fully into philological disquisitions, he may nevertheless do something in the way of collecting materials for others; and whenever he visits a nation or tribe whose language is little known, he should make a vocabulary of as many words as possible, noting the pronunciation to the best of his ability, and observing particularly the variety of vowel sounds, and

the difference in the articulation of what may be regarded as the same consonant.

We have hitherto treated only of oral or spoken language. The generality of savage nations know no other; but ideas may be and are conveyed to the mind through the eye as well as by the ear, and this manner of conveying a language is called writing or written language, in contradistinction to that which is simply oral.

Written language, in the large sense of the word, embraces two distinct kinds of writing; the one ideographic and the other phonetic. In the former, material objects are represented to the eye by pictured resemblances more or less perfect, and abstract ideas by the representation of those objects which most naturally awaken them, or both by certain conventional symbols. In phonetic writing, conventional signs, not being symbols, stand either for elementary or syllabic sounds, the recollection of which is immediately brought to the mind at sight of the characters, so that the mind hears through the medium of the sight. Ultimately the sight of a word suggests at once the idea intended to be conveyed by it without any reference to its sound, or, the indirect process is so rapid as to be imperceptible.

The Mexican picture-writing, the Egyptian Hieroglyphics, and our own letters, are examples of the three great classes of writing. It may however be observed, that from picture writing to letters, there has ever been a regular gradation; as is shown in the Hieroglyphic, the Hieratic and the Demotic, or Enchorial writings of the Egyptians; and even at the present day the three kinds of writing are sometimes used together, particularly in those writings of civilized nations where the economy of space is important.

Phonetic writing implies a high state of civilization; whereas picture-writing whether figurative or symbolical is in use among many savage tribes; and we strongly recommend to travellers to take correct copies of all such wherever he may find it, and to ascertain, if possible, the exact interpretation of it from the natives themselves; he should go still further, and learn whether this kind of hieroglyphic writing be arbitrary with individuals; whether each separate horde has a secret writing known only to itself; or whether there is a general and widely-extended system understood alike by hordes speaking different languages; as the Arabic ciphers are understood by all European nations. If there be a system, the traveller will do well to learn it, to copy and

explain it, adding such criticism as may lead to elucidate so interesting a subject as the process by which mankind endeavour to communicate their ideas to each other, and to preserve the remembrance of past events.

Of phonetic writing, it is almost superfluous to speak, as it is used only by the most civilized people, and the languages and manner of writing of all these are well known; thus some write from left to right, others from right to left, and some both ways alternately, some in upright columns. With some the vowels are written; by others they are entirely omitted, or their place supplied by marks placed over or under the line; some leave no spaces between the words, and others do; some punctuate the parts of sentences, and others do not, &c.

The materials on which writing is and has been executed are very various. Stones, unburnt bricks, wood, and the bark and leaves of trees, papyrus, wax, bones and ivory, shells, prepared skins or parchment, linen, paper of various kinds, metals, &c.

From the above observations on languages both spoken and written may be easily gleaned what should fix the attention of the inquiring traveller on the subject; and if to details on the particular language of any people, he be enabled to add a satisfactory account of its origin and its general connexion with the history of the people who speak it, he will render an essential service to general science.

DRESS. The way in which different people clothe themselves, or their dress, depends in great part on the climate they inhabit. In cold countries they use furs, woollen stuffs, &c. In hot countries, on the contrary, they either go naked altogether, or use very slight clothing. In countries subject to great change of temperature there is a winter and a summer dress.

The mode of living, exercises an influence over the forms of dress; thus the higher orders among the Turks, the Persians, and the people of the East Indies, wear wide and flowing dresses, such as are fit only for a sedentary and indolent class of people. Mountaineers, hunters, and tillers of the ground, as also certain handicraftsmen, are compelled by the very nature of their occupations to use vestments fitting to the body, and so made as not to incommode its move

ments.

The degree of civilization and wealth of a people determine the kind of materials used for dress; among savages

we find skins more or less prepared, or some coarse stuffs, made of the bark of trees, of grasses, &c., whilst in opulent nations we see fine cloths, muslins, silks, velvets, rich brocades interwoven with gold and silver, &c. With the former the ornaments are the gaudy feathers of birds, the tattooing of different parts of the body, collars and bracelets of fish bones, &c. With the latter the ornaments consist of gold and silver exquisitely wrought, precious stones cut and polished, pearls set with great art, &c. &c.

The laws also, in some countries, regulate wholly or in part the costume of the people: these sumptuary laws determine the materials, the colours, and the form of the habiliments for different orders, classes and ranks.

Among some people we find a national costume distinguishable either by the colour of the stuffs or the form of the dress, or both; the manner of wearing the beard, of cutting the hair, &c., are in many cases peculiar.

In some countries dress is above all things subject to the caprices of fashion, while in others it never changes.

Thus the observations to be made by the traveller on the costume of a people must embrace the different objects we have enumerated; he must specify the materials of which the clothing is made, its colours and forms, and the way in which it is worn: do the people go with heads uncovered, or what kind of caps, turbans, &c. do they wear; how do they wear the hair and beard; are the legs and feet uncovered, or what do they wear on them? If religious injunctions, or sumptuary laws, or custom, which has often the force of law, determine the particular dress of different classes in the social hierarchy, how are these ranks or professions distinguished? What is the difference between the winter and the summer dresses? In what do the ornaments worn by the people or by particular classes consist? Is it the men or the women only who wear ornaments, or both; what is the difference in the ornaments worn by the two sexes? Is there any difference, and what, between the dress of married and unmarried persons? What is the mourning costume of the people, and how do they dress on festive occasions, &c.? Do the men go armed; and if so, what kind of arms do they habitually carry?

The gloomy or cheerful disposition of a people, their simplicity or pride, good sense or vanity, are strongly marked in their costume.

In civilized countries, the dress of the working classes. is, to a certain extent, a criterion of their more or less easy circumstances. Food and indispensable clothing are the first requisites, and it is not till these are supplied, that men think of superfluities; hence, when these latter are found among the lower classes either in the quantity or the quality of their apparel, they may be pronounced comfortably circumstanced.

We must not, however, rashly judge of the flourishing state of a people in general, from the display they make of ornament; for it is sometimes true, as a judicious observer has remarked, that "the lower orders in a country wear rings and trinkets of gold and silver only because they have not an opportunity of placing their savings advantageously." Nevertheless, this is not an axiom; one people may be more vain or less industrious than another, and may prefer an ostentatious display of their wealth to real comfort, or even to an increase of their fortune, when this is only to be secured by increase of fatigue, and the anxiety inseparable from speculation.

. Besides the details of dress itself, the observer should notice whether or not it be suitable to the country or to the habits of life of those who wear it; whether the fashions be domestic or foreign; whether the materials be of domestic fabric, or brought from other countries, and whence.

Finally, is there any thing peculiarly advantageous or defective in the costume, and if the latter, how might it be remedied?

FOOD.-Physiologists tell us, from the inspection of the teeth and stomach of man, that he is omnivorous, and experience shows this to be in reality the case; for if there be people who live entirely on vegetables, it is not from obedience to any law of nature, but in consequence of some superstitious observance, as with the Hindoos, or from want of the knowledge of the mode of procuring other kinds of food, as is the case with certain savage tribes, who find in berries and roots and other spontaneous fruits of the earth, the means of supporting a miserable existence; there are some who, according to the relations of travellers, eat a kind of earth. Even in civilized Europe there are classes of men who seldom eat meat, such as the shepherds of the Alps, the Irish peasantry, &c. but then this is from poverty, and not from in