the patron was poor; and to his ransom, or that of his children, if they were taken prisoners; he paid the costs and damages of a suit which the patron lost, and of any penalty in which he was condemned; he bore a part of the patron's expenses incurred by his discharging public duties, or filling the honourable places in the state. Neither party could accuse the other, or bear testimony against the other, or give his vote against the other. This relationship between patron and client subsisted for many generations, and resembled in all respects the relationship by blood. CLITELLAE. been first used by Proetus and Acrisius of Ar- Greeks; and in the centre was a projection The relation of a master to his liberated used a leather strap (Tɛhaμúv) to support the In the Imeric times, the Greeks merely slave (libertus) was expressed by the word pa-shield, but subsequently a handle (oxavov or tronus, and the libertus was the cliens of his oxúvn), the use and form of which are exhibpatronus. Distinguished Romans were also ited in the annexed cut. the protectors of states and cities, which were in a certain relation of subjection or dependence to Rome. In the time of Cicero we also find patronus in the sense of adviser, advocate, or defender, opposed to cliens in the sense of the person defended or the consultor-a use of the word which must be referred to the original character of the patronus. CLIENTELA. [CLIENS.] CLIPEUS (άoníç), the large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans, which was originally of the circular form, and is said to have Clipeus, Shield. Clipeus, Shield. When the census was instituted by Servius Tullius at Rome, the first class only used the clipeus, and the second were armed with the scutum [SCUTUM]; but after the Roman soldiery received pay, the clipeus was discontinued altogether for the scutum. CLITE'LLAE, a pair of panniers, and therefore only used in the plural number. In Italy they were commonly used with mules or asses; but in other countries they were also applied to horses, of which an instance is given in the annexed woodcut from the column of Trajan. COACTOR. Clitellae. CLOA CA, a sewer, a drain. Rome was intersected by numerous sewers, some of which were of an immense size: the most celebrated of them was the cloaca maxima, the construction of which is ascribed to Tarquinius Priscus. It was formed by three tiers of arches, one within the other, the innermost of which is a semicircular vault of 14 feet in diameter. The manner of its construction is shown in the annexed cut. Cloaca. Under the republic, the administration of the sewers was entrusted to the censors; but under the empire, particular officers were appointed for that purpose, called cloacarum curatores, who employed condemned criminals in cleansing and repairing them. CLOCK. [HOROLOGIUM.] COA VESTIS, the Coan robe, was a transparent dress, chiefly worn by women of loose reputation. It has been supposed to have been made of silk, because in Cos silk was spun and woven at a very early period. COACTOR, the name of collectors of various sorts, e. g. the servants of the publicani, or farmers of the public taxes, who collected the revenues for them, and those who collected the money from the purchasers of things sold at a public auction. Horace informs us that his father was a coactor of this kind. Moreover, the servants of the money-changers were so called, from collecting their debts for them. The coactores agminis" were the soldiers who brought up the rear of a line of march. CO'CHLEAR (кoxλáρtov),a kind of spoon, which appears to have terminated with a point at one end, and at the other was broad and hollow like our spoons. The pointed end was used for drawing snails (cochleae) out of their shells, and eating them, whence it derived its name; and the broader part for eating eggs, &c. Cochlear was also the name given to a small measure like our spoonful. CODEX, identical with caudex, as Claudius and Clodius, claustrum and clostrum, cauda and coda, originally signified the trunk or stem of a tree. The name codex was especially applied to wooden tablets bound together and lined with a coat of wax, for the purpose of writing upon them, and when, at a later age, parchment or paper, or other materials were substituted for wood, and put together in the shape of a book, the name of codex was still given to them. In the time of Cicero, we find it also applied to the tablet on which a bill was written. At a still later period, during the time of the emperors, the word was used to express any collection of laws or constitutions of the emperors, whether made by private individuals or by public authority, as the Codex Gregorianus, Codex Theodosianus, and Codex Justinianëus. COE MPTIO. [MATRIMONIUM.] COENA. As the Roman meals are not always clearly distinguished, it will be convenient to treat of all under the most important one; and we shall confine ourselves to the description of the ordinary life of the mid dle ranks of society in the Augustan age, noticing incidentally the most remarkable deviations. The meal with which the Roman sometimes began the day was the jentaculum, which was chiefly taken by children, or sick persons, or the luxurious. An irregular meal (if we may so express it) was not likely to have any very regular time; two epigrams of Martial, however, seem to fix the hour at about three or four o'clock in the morning. Bread formed the substantial part of this early breakfast, to which cheese, or dried fruit, as dates and raisins, were sometimes added. Next followed the prandium or luncheon, with persons of simple habits a frugal meal,, trusted were four, the butler (promus), the usually taken about twelve or one o'clock. cook (archimagirus), the arranger of the dishes (structor), and the carver (carptor or scissor). Carving was taught as an art, and performed to the sound of music, with appropriate gesticulations. "minimo sane discrimine refert, The coena, or principal meal of the day, corresponding to our "dinner," was usually taken about three o'clock in the time of Cicero and Augustus, though we read of some persons not dining till near sunset. A Roman dinner at the house of a wealthy man Qou vultu lepores, et quo gallina secetur." usually consisted of three courses. The first In the supper of Petronius, a large round was called promulsis, antecoena or gustatio, tray (ferculum, repositorium) is brought in, with and was made up of all sorts of stimulants to the signs of the zodiac figured all round it, the appetite. Eggs also were so indispensa- upon each of which the artiste (structor) had ble to the first course that they almost gave placed some appropriate viand, a goose on a name to it (ab ovo usque ad mala). The fru- Aquarius, a pair of scales with tarts (scriblitae) gality of Martial only allowed of lettuce and and cheesecakes (placentae) in each scale on Sicenian olives; indeed he himself tells us Libra, &c. In the middle was placed a hive that the promulsis was a refinement of mo- supported by delicate herbage. Presently four dern luxury. It would far exceed our limits slaves come forward dancing to the sound of to mention all the dishes which formed the music, and take away the upper part of the second course of a Roman dinner. Of birds, dish; beneath appear all kinds of dressed the Guinea hen (Afra avis), the pheasant (pha- meats; a hare with wings, to imitate Pegasiana, so called from Phasis, a river of Col- sus, in the middle; and four figures of Marchis), and the thrush, were most in repute; syas at the corners, pouring hot sauce (garum the liver of a capon steeped in milk, and bec- piperatum) over the fish, that were swimming caficos (ficedulae) dressed with pepper, were in the Euripus below. So entirely had the held a delicacy. The peacock, according to Romans lost all shame of luxury, since the Macrobius, was first introduced by Horten- days when Cincius, in supporting the Fansius the orator, at an inaugural supper, and nian law, charged his own age with the enoracquired such repute among the Roman gour-mity of introducing the porcus Trojanus, a sort mands as to be commonly sold for fifty dena- of pudding stuffed with the flesh of other anirii. Other birds are mentioned, as the duck mals. (anas), especially its head and breast; the woodcock (attagen), the turtle, and flamingo (phoenicopterus), the tongue of which, Martial tells us, especially commended itself to the delicate palate. Of fish the variety was perhaps still greater: the charr (scarus), the turbot (rhombus), the sturgeon (acipenser), the mullet (mullus), were highly prized, and dressed in the most various fashions. Of solid meat, pork seems to have been the favourite dish, especially sucking-pig. Boar's flesh and venison were also in high repute, especially the former, described by Juvenal as animal propter convivia natum. Condiments were added to most of these dishes: such were the muria, a kind of pickle made from the tunny fish; the garum sociorum, made from the intestines of the mackerel (scomber), so called because brought from abroad; alec, a sort of brine; faex, the sediment of wine, &c. Several kinds of fungi are mentioned, trufles (boleti), mushrooms (tuberes), which either made dishes by themselves, or formed the garniture for larger dishes. It must not be supposed that the artistes of imperial Rome were at all behind ourselves in the preparations and arrangements of the table. In a large household, the functiona- | ries to whom this important duty was en The third course was the bellaria or dessert, to which Horace alludes when he says of Tigellius ob ovo usque ad mala citaret; it consisted of fruits (which the Romans usually ate uncooked), such as almonds (amygdalae), dried grapes (uvae passae), dates (palmulae, laryotae, dactyli); of sweetmeats and confections, called edulia mellita, dulciaria, such as cheesecakes (cupediae, crustula, liba, placentae, artologani), almond cakes (coptae), tarts (scriblitae), whence the maker of them was called pistor dulciarius, placentarius, libarius, &c. We will now suppose the table spread and the guests assembled, each with his mappa or napkin, and in his dinner dress, called coenatoria or cubitoria, usually of a bright colour, and variegated with flowers. First they took off their shoes, for fear of soiling the couch, which was often inlaid with ivory or tortoiseshell, and covered with cloth of gold. Next they lay down to eat, the head resting on the left elbow and supported by cushions. There were usually, but not always, three on the same couch, the middle place being esteemed the most honourable. Around the tables stood the servants (ministri) clothed in a tunic, and girt with napkins; some removed the dishes and wiped the tables with a rough cloth, others gave the guests water for their hands, or COLLEGIUM. cooled the room with fans. Here stood an eastern youth behind his master's couch, ready to answer the noise of the fingers, while others bore a large platter of different kinds of meat to the guests. Dinner was set out in a room called coenatio or diaeta (which two words perhaps conveyed to a Roman ear nearly the same distinction as our dining-room and parlour). The coenatio, in rich men's houses, was fitted up with great magnificence. Suetonius mentions a supper-room in the golden palace of Nero, constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to change with every course. In the midst of the coenatio were set three couches (triclinia), answering in shape to the square, as the long semicircular couches (sigmata) did to the oval tables. An account of the disposition of the couches, and of the place which each guest occupied, is given in the article TRI CLINIUM. For an account of Greek meals, see the article DEIPNON. COENA'CULUM. [DOMUS.] COGNATI, COGNATIO. The cognatio was the relationship of blood, which existed between those who were sprung from a common pair; and all persons so related were called cognati. body was called a corporatio. Associations of individuals, who were entitled to have a cor pus, could hold property in common. Such a body, which was sometimes also called a universitas, was a legal unity. That which was due to the body, was not due to the individuals of it; and that which the body owed, was not the debt of the individuals. The common property of the body was liable to be seized and sold for the debts of the body. It does not appear how collegia were formed, except that some were specially established by legal authority. Other collegia were probably formed by voluntary associations of individuals under the provisions of some general legal authority, such as those of the publi cani. Some of these corporate bodies resembled our companies or guilds; such were the fabrorum, pistorum, &c. collegia. Others were of a religious character; such as the pontificum, augurum, fratrum arvalium collegia. Öthers were bodies concerned about government and administration; as tribunorum plebis, quaestorum, decurionum collegia. According to the definition of a collegium, the consuls being only two in number were not a collegium, though each was called col lega with respect to the other, and their union in office was called collegium. When a new member was taken into a col The foundation of cognatio is a legal mar-legium, he was said co-optari, and the old riage. The term cognatus (with some exceptions) comprehends agnatus; an agnatus may be a cognatus, but a cognatus is only an agnatus when his relationship by blood is traced through males. Those who were of the same blood by both parents were sometimes called germani; consanguinei were those who had a common father only; and uterini those who had a common mother only. CO'GNITOR. [ACTIO.] COLLEGIUM. The persons who formed a collegium were called collegae or sodales. The word collegium properly expressed the notion of several persons being united in any office for any common purpose; it afterwards came to signify a body of persons, and the union which bound them together. The collegium was the έraipía of the Greeks. members were said with respect to him, recipere in collegium. The mode of filling up vacancies would vary in different collegia. "The statement of their rules belongs to the several heads of AUGUR, PONTIFEX, &c. COLONIA, a colony, contains the same element as the verb colere, " to cultivate," and as the word colonus, which probably originally signified a "tiller of the earth." 1. GREEK. The usual Greek words for a colony are ἀποικία and κληρουχία. The latter word, which signified a division of conquered lands among Athenian citizens, and which corresponds in some respects to the Roman colonia, is explained in the article CLERUCHI. The earlier Greek colonies, called άπоikiaι, were usually composed of mere bands of adventurers, who left their native country, with their families and property, to seek a new home for themselves. Some of the colonies, The legal notion of a collegium was as fol- which arose in consequence of foreign invalows:-A collegium or corpus, as it was also sion or civil wars, were undertaken without called, must consist of three persons at least. any formal consent from the rest of the comPersons who legally formed such an associa-munity; but usually a colony was sent out tion were said corpus habere, which is equivaent to our phrase of being incorporated; and in later times they were said to be corporati, and the with the approbation of the mother country, and under the management of a leader (oikiorns) appointed by it. But whatever may have been the origin of the colony, it was always considered in a political point of view independent of the mother country, called by the Greeks metropolis (unTpórolis), the "mother-city," and entirely emancipated from its control. At the same time, though a colony was in no political subjection to its parent state, it was united to it by the ties of filial affection; and, according to the generally received opinions of the Greeks, its duties to the parent state corresponded to those of a daughter to her mother. Hence, in all matters of common interest, the colony gave precedence to the mother state; and the founder of the colony (oikioτns), who might be considered as the representative of the parent state, was usually worshipped, after his death, as a hero. Also, when the colony became in its turn a parent, it usually sought a leader for the colony which it intended to found from the original mother country; and the same feeling of respect was manifested by embassies which were sent to honour the principal festivals of the parent state, and also by bestowing places of honour and other marks of respect upon the ambassadors and other members of the parent state, when they visited the colony at festivals and on similar occasions. The colonists also worshipped in their new settlement the same deities as they had been accustomed to honour in their native country: the sacred fire, which was constantly kept burning on their public hearth, was taken from the Prytaneium of the parent city; and sometimes the priests also were brought from the mother state. In the same spirit, it was considered a violation of sacred ties for a mother country and a colony to make war upon one another. the other colonies were wont to pay to the mother country. The Corcyreans, who had become very powerful by sea, took offence at the Corinthians receiving Epidamnus under their protection, and the result was a war between Corcyra and Corinth. The Corcyreans sent ambassadors to Athens to ask assistance; and in reply to the objection that they were a colony of Corinth, they said "that every colony, as long as it is treated kindly, respects the mother country: but when it is injured, is alienated from it; for colonists are not sent out as subjects, but that they may have equal rights with those that remain at home." It is true that ambitious states, such as Athens, sometimes claimed dominion over other states on the ground of relationship; but, as a general rule, colonies may be regarded as independent states, attached to their metropolis by ties of sympathy and common descent, but no farther. The case of Potidaea, to which the Corinthians sent annually the chief magistrates (dnuovрyoí), appears to have been an exception to the general rule. 2. ROMAN. A kind of colonization seems to have existed among the oldest Italian nations, who, on certain occasions, sent out their superfluous male population, with arms in their hands, to seek for a new home. But these were apparently mere bands of adventurers, and such colonies rather resembled the old Greek colonies, than those by which Rome extended her dominion and her name. Colonies were established by the Romans as far back as the annals or traditions of the city extend, and the practice was continued, without intermission, during the republic and under the empire. Colonies were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress hostile incursions; and their chief object was originally the extension and preservation of the Roman dominion in Italy. Cicero calls the old Italian colonies the propugnacula imperii. Another object was to in crease the population. Sometimes the immediate object of a colony was to carry off a number of turbulent and discontented persons. Colonies were also established for the purpose of providing for veteran soldiers, a practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the emperors: these coloniae were called militares. The preceding account of the relations between the Greek colonies and the mother country is supported by the history which Thucydides gives us of the quarrel between Corcyra and Corinth. Corcyra was a colony of Corinth, and Epidamnus a colony of Corcyra; but the leader (oikorns) of the colony of Epidamnus was a Corinthian who was invited from the metropolis Corinth. In course of time, in consequence of civil dissensions, and attacks from the neighbouring barbarians, the Epidamnians apply for aid to Corcyra, but their request is rejected. They next apply to the Corinthians, who took Epidamnus under their protection, thinking, says Thucydides, that the colony was no less theirs than the Corcyreans': and also induced to do so The old Roman colonies were in the nature through hatred of the Corcyreans, because of garrisons planted in conquered towns, and they neglected them though they were colo- the colonists had a portion of the conquered nists; for they did not give to the Corinthi- territory (usually a third part) assigned to ans the customary honours and deference in them. The inhabitants retained the rest of the public solemnities and sacrifices, which | their lands, and lived together with the new |