Agonis was allowed to return to life, and spend half the year with Aphrodite (Venus). ADOPTIO, adoption. 1. GREEK.-Adoption was called by the Athenians eiçroinois, εἰςποίησις, or sometimes simply πоinσiç, or Oéois. The ποίησις, θέσις. adoptive father was said Tolciobaι, ɛiçñolɛîolai, or sometimes πoɩɛīv: and the father or mother (for a mother after the death of her husband could consent to her son being adopted) was said έKπоιεIν: the son was said kTOLεiolaι with reference to the family which he left; and içπоLεiolaι with reference to the family into which he was received. The son, when adopted, was called πointós, ɛiçπointós, or BεTós, in opposition to the legitimate son born of the body of the father, who was called γνήσιος. A man might adopt a son either in his lifetime or by his testament, provided he had no male offspring, and was of sound mind. He might also, by testament, name a person to take his property, in case his son or sons should die under age. Only Athenian citizens could be adopted; but females could be adopted (by testament at least) as well as males. ADULTERIUM. When a person was not in the power of his parent (sui juris), the ceremony of adoption was called adrogatio. Originally, it could only be effected at Rome, and only by a vote of the populus (populi auctoritate) in the comitia curiata (lege curiata); the reason of this being that the caput or status of a Roman citizen could not, according to the laws of the Twelve Tables, be effected except by a vote of the populus in the comitia curiata. Clodius, the enemy of Cicero, was adrogated into a plebian family, in order to qualify himself to be elected a tribune of the plebs. Females could not be adopted by adrogatio. Under the emperors it became the practice to effect the adrogatio by an imperial rescript. The effect of adoption was to create the legal relation of father and son, just as if the adopted son were born of the blood of the adoptive father in lawful marriage. The adopted child was entitled to the name and sacra privata of the adopting parent. A person, on passing from one gens into another, and taking the name of his new familia, generally retained the name of his old gens also, with the addition to it of the termination anus. Thus Aemilius, the son of L. Aemilius Paullus, upon being adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio, assumed the name of P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, and C. Octavius, afterwards the emperor Augustus, upon being adopted by the testament of his uncle the dictator, assumed the name of C. Julius Caesar Octavianus. ADORATIO (πpokývnois), adoration (προςκύνησις), was paid to the gods in the following manпer:-The individual stretched out his right hand to the statue of the god whom he wished to honour, then kissed his hand, and waved it to the statue. The adoratio differed from the oratio or prayers, supplications, which were offered with the hands folded together. The adoration paid to the Roman emperors was borrowed from the Eastern mode of adoration, and consisted in prostration on the ground, and kissing the feet and knees of the emperor. The adopted child was transferred from his own family and demus into those of the adoptive father; he inherited his property, and maintained the sacra of his adoptive father. It was not necessary for him to take his new father's name, but he was registered as his son in the register of his phratria (opаTρikov Yраμμатεioν). Subsequently to this, it was necessary to enter him in the register of the adoptive father's demus (λngiapxιкòv урaμμarεiov), without which registration it appears that he did not possess the full rights of citizenship as a member of his new demus. 2. ROMAN.-The Roman relation of parent and child arose either from a lawful marriage or from adoption. Adoptio was the general name which comprehended the two species, adoptio and adrogatio; and as the adopted person passed from his own familia into that of the person adopting, adoptio caused a capitis diminutio, and the lowest of the three ADROGA TIO. [ADOPTION.] kinds. [CAPUT.] Adoption, in its specific ADULTE RIUM, adultery. 1. GREEK. sense, was the ceremony by which a person Among the Athenians, if a if a man man caught who was in the power of his parent (in potes- another man in the act of criminal intercourse tate parentium), whether child or grandchild, (uoixɛía) with his wife, he might kill him with male or female, was transferred to the power impunity; and the law was also the same of the person adopting him. It was effected with respect to a concubine (πаλλaкý). He under the authority of a magistrate (magistra- might also inflict other punishment on the tus), the praetor, for instance, at Rome, or a offender. It appears that there was no adultery, governor (praeses), in the provinces. The unless a married woman was concerned. The person to be adopted was emancipated [MAN- husband might, if he pleased, take a sum of CIPATIO] by his natural father before the com- money from the adulterer, by way of compenpetent authority, and surrendered to the adop-sation, and detain him till he found sureties tive father by the legal form called in jure cessio. for the payment. The husband might also ADUNATI. prosecute the adulterer in the action called 2. ROMAN. The word adulterium properly signifies, in the Roman law, the offence committed by a man's having sexual intercourse with another man's wife. Stuprum (called by the Greeks opú) signifies the like offence with a widow or virgin. In the time of Augustus a law was enacted (probably about B. C. 17), entitled Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis, which seems to have contained special penal provisions against adultery; and it is also not improbable, that by the old law or custom, if the adulterer was caught in the fact, he was at the mercy of the injured husband, and that the husband might punish with death his adulterous wife. at different times. In the time of Lysias and Aristotle, one obolus a day was given; but it appears to have been afterwards increased to two oboli. The bounty was restricted to persons whose property was under three minae; and the examination of those who were entitled to it belonged to the senate of the Five Hundred. Pisistratus is said to have been the first to introduce a law for the maintenance of those persons who had been mutilated in war. ADVOCA ́TUS, seems originally to have signified any person, who gave another his aid in any affair or business, as a witness for instance; or for the purpose of aiding and protecting him in taking possession of a piece of property. It was also used to express a person who in any way gave his advice and aid to another in the management of a cause; but the word did not signify the orator or patronus who made the speech in the time of Cicero. Under the emperors it signified a person who in any way assisted in the conduct of a cause, and was sometimes equivalent to orator. The advocate's fee was then called Honorarium. A'DYTUM. [TEMPLUM.] AEDES. [DOMUS; TEMPLUM.] By the Julian law, a woman convicted of adultery was mulcted in half of her dowry (dos) and the third part of her property (bona), AEDI'LES ('Ayopavóμor). The name of and banished (relegata) to some miserable these functionaries is said to be derived from island, such as Seriphos, for instance. The their having the care of the temple (aedes) of adulterer was mulcted in half his property, Ceres. The aediles were originally two in and banished in like manner. This law did number; they were elected from the plebs, not inflict the punishment of death on either and the institution of the office dates from party; and in those instances under the em- the same time as that of the tribunes of the perors in which death was inflicted, it must plebs, B. C. 494. Their duties at first seem be considered as an extraordinary punishment, to have been merely ministerial; they were and beyond the provisions of the Julian law. the assistants of the tribunes in such matters The Julian law permitted the father (both as the tribunes entrusted to them, among adoptive and natural) to kill the adulterer and which are enumerated the hearing of causes adulteress in certain cases, as to which there of smaller importance. At an early period were several nice distinctions established by after their institution (B. c. 446), we find them the law. If the wife was divorced for adul-appointed the keepers of the senatus-consulta, tery, the husband was entitled to retain part of the dowry. By a constitution of the Emperor Constantine, the offence in the adulterer was made capital. ADVERSA RIA, a note-book, memoranlum-book, posting-book, in which the Romans entered memoranda of any importance, especially of money received and expended, which were afterwards transcribed, usually every month, into a kind of ledger. (Tabulae justac, codex accepti et expensi.) ADVERSARIUS. [ACTOR.] ADU ́NATI (’Aðúvaroi), were persons sup. ported by the Athenian state,who, on account of infirmity or bodily defects, were unable to obtain a velihood. The sum which they received from the state appears to have varied which the consuls had hitherto arbitrarily suppressed or altered. They were also the keepers of the plebiscita. Other functions were gradually entrusted to them, and it is not always easy to distinguish their duties from some of those which belong to the censors. They had the general superintendence of buildings, both sacred and private; under this power they provided for the support and repair of temples, curiae, &c., and took care that private buildings,which were in a ruinous state were repaired by the owners or pulled down. The care of the streets and pavements, with the cleansing and draining of the city, belonged to the aediles, and, of course, the care of the cloacae. They had the office of distributing corn among the plebs, but this distribution of corn at Rome must not be con founded with the duty of purchasing or procuring it from foreign parts, which was performed by the consuls, quaestors, and praetors, and sometimes by an extraordinary magistrate, as the praefectus annonac. The aediles had to see that the public lands were not improperly used, and that the pasture grounds of the state were not trespassed on; and they had power to punish by fine any unlawful act in this respect. They had a general superintendence over buying and selling, and, as a consequence, the supervision of the markets, of things exposed to sale, such as slaves, and of weights and measures; from this part of their duty is derived the name under which the aediles are mentioned by the Greek writers (¿yopavóuoi). It was their business to see that no new deities or religious rites were introduced into the city, to look after the observance of religious ceremonies, and the celebration of the ancient feasts and festivals. The general superintendence of police comprehended the duty of preserving order, regard to decency, and the inspection of the baths and houses of entertainment. The aediles had various officers under them, as praecones, scribae, and viatores. The AEDILES CURULES, who were also two in number, were originally chosen only from the patricians, afterwards alternately from the patricians and the plebs, and at last indifferently from both. The office of curule aediles was instituted B. C. 365, and, according to Livy, on the occasion of the plebeian aediles refusing to consent to celebrate the Ludi Maximi for the space of four days instead of three; upon which a senatus-consultum was passed, by which two aediles were to be chosen from the patricians. From this time four aediles, two plebeian and two curule, were annually elected. The distinctive honours of the curule aediles were, the sella curulis, from whence their title is derived, the toga praetexta, precedence in speaking in the senate, and the jus imaginis. The curule aediles only had the jus edicendi, or the right of promulgating edicta; but the rules comprised in their edicta served for the guidance of all the aediles. The edicta of the curule aediles were founded on their authority as superintendents of the markets, and of buying and selling in general. Accordingly, their edicts had mainly, or perhaps solely, reference to the rules as to buying and selling, and contracts for bargain and sale. The persons both of the plebeian and curule aediles were sacrosancti. It seems that after the appointment of the | AEDILES. cised by the plebeian aediles were exercised, with some few exceptions, by all the aediles indifferently. Within five days after being elected, or entering on office, they were required to determine by lot, or by agreement among themselves, what parts of the city each should take under his superintendence; and each aedile alone had the care of looking after the paving and cleansing of the streets, and other matters, it may be presumed, of the same local character within his district. The other duties of the office seem to have been exercised by them jointly. In the superintendence of the public festi vals or solemnities, there was a further dis tinction between the two sets of aediles Many of these festivals, such as those of Flora and Ceres, were superintended b either set of aediles indifferently; but the plebeian games were under the superinten dence of the plebeian aediles, who had a allowance of money for that purpose; ani the fines levied on the pecuarii, and others. seem to have been appropriated to these among other public purposes. The celebration of the Ludi Magni or Romani, of the Ludi Scenici, or dramatic representations, and the Ludi Megalesii, belonged specially to the curule aediles, and it was on such occasions that they often incurred a prodigious expense, with a view of pleasing the people, and securing their votes in future elections. This extravagant expenditure of the aediles arose after the close of the second Punic war, and increased with the opportunities which individuals had of enriching themselves after the Roman arms were carried into Greece, Africa, and Spain. Even the prodigality of the emperors hardly surpassed that of individual curule aediles under the republic; such as C. Julius Cæsar, the dictator, P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, and, above all, M. Aemilius Scaurus, whose expenditure was not limited to bare show, but comprehended objects of public utility, as the reparation of walls, dock-yards, ports, and aqueducts. In B. c. 45, Julius Cæsar caused two curule aediles and four plebeian aediles to be elected; and thenceforward, at least so long as the office of aedile was of any importance, six aediles were annually elected. The two new plebeian aediles were called Cereales, and their duty was to look after a supply of corn. Though their office may not have been of any great importance after the institution of a praefectus annonae by Augustus, there is no doubt that it existed for several centuries, and at least as late as the time of the emperor Gordian. curule aediles, the functions formerly exer- The aediles belonged to the class of the AEDILES. AEGIS. 9 minores magistratus. The plebeian aediles were originally chosen at the comitia centuriata, but afterwards at the comitia tributa, in which comitia the curule aediles also were chosen. It appears that until the lex annalis was passed (B. C. 180) a Roman citi-office of putting out fires, and placed a body zen might be a candidate for any office after completing his twenty-seventh year. This law fixed the age at which each office might be enjoyed, and it seems that the age fixed for the aedileship was thirty-seven. had already been consul before he accepted the office of aedile, and his munificent expenditure in this nominal office was the close of the splendour of the aedileship. Augustus appointed the curule aediles specially to the of 600 slaves at their command; but the praefecti vigilum afterwards performed this duty. They retained, under the early emperors, a kind of police, for the purpose of repressing open licentiousness and disorder. The coloniae, and the municipia of the later period, had also their aediles, whose numbers and functions varied in different places. They seem, however, as to their powers and duties, to have resembled the aediles of Rome. They were chosen annually. The aediles existed under the emperors; but their powers were gradually diminished, and their functions exercised by new officers created by the emperors. After the battle of Actium, Augustus appointed a Praefectus urbi, who exercised the general police, which had formerly been one of the duties of the AEDITUI, AEDITUMI, AEDITIM] aediles. Augustus also took from the aediles, (called by the Greeks vɛwkópoι, Čúkopol, and or exercised himself, the office of superin- о(úкороi), were persons who took care of tending the religious rites, and the banishing the temples, attended to the cleaning of them, from the city of all foreign ceremonials; he &c. They appear to have lived in the temalso assumed the superintendence of the temples, or near them, and to have acted as ciceples, and thus may be said to have destroyed roni to those persons who wished to see the aedileship by depriving it of its old and them. Subsequently among the Greeks, the original function. The last recorded instance menial services connected with this office of the splendours of the aedileship is the ad- were left to slaves, and the persons called ministration of Agrippa, who volunteered to neocori became priestly officers of high rank, take the office, and repaired all the public who had the chief superintendence of tembuildings and all the roads at his own ex- ples, their treasures, and the sacred rites ob pense, without drawing anything from the served in them. treasury. The aedileship had, however, lost its true character before this time. Agrippa AEGIS (Alyiç) signifies, literally, a goatskin. The Aegis as worn by Athena (Minerva). 1170 According to ancient mythology, the aegis | worn by Jupiter was the hide of the goat Amaltheia, which had suckled him in his infancy. Homer always represents it as part of the armour of Jupiter, whom on this account he distinguishes by the epithet aegis-bearing (aiyioxos). He, however, asserts, that it was borrowed on different occasions, both by Apollo and Minerva. The aegis was connected with the shield of Jupiter, either serving as a covering over it, or as a belt by which it was suspended from the right shoulder. Homer accordingly uses the word to denote not only the goat-skin, which it properly signified, but also the shield to which it belonged. The aegis was adorned in a style corresponding to the might and majesty of the father of the gods. In the middle of it was fixed the appalling Gorgon's head, and its border was surrounded with golden tassels (búσavoi), each of which was worth a hecatomb. The aegis is usually seen on the statues of Minerva, in which it is a sort of scarf falling obliquely over the right shoulder, so as to pass round the body under the left arm. The serpents of the Gorgon's head are transferred to the border of the skin. (See the left-hand figure in the cut.) The later poets and artists represent the aegis as a breastplate covered with metal in the form of scales. (See the right-hand figure.) AENEATO RES, were those who blew upon wind instruments in the Roman army; namely, the buccinatores, cornicines, and tubicines. They were also employed in the public games. AEOLIP'YLÆ (άióhov túhai) were, according to the description of Vitruvius, hollow vessels made of brass, which were used in explaining the origin. &c. of the winds. These vessels, which had a very small orifice, were filled with water and placed on the fire, by which, of course, steam was created. AERA, a point of time from which subsequent or preceding years may be counted. The Greeks had no common aera till a comparatively late period. The Athenians reckoned their years by the name of the chief archon of each year, whence he was called archon eponymus (üрxov έπúvvμoc); the Lacedaemonians by one of the ephors, and the Argives by the chief priestess of Juno, who held her office for life. The following aeras were adopted in later times:-1. the aera of the Trojan war (B.C. 1184), which was first made use of by Eratosthenes.-2. the Olympic aera, which began B. c. 776.-3. the Philippic or Alexandrian AERARIUM. aera, which began B. c. 323.-4. the aera of the Seleucidae, which began in the autumn of B. c. 312.-5. the aeras of Antioch, of which there were three, but the one in most common use began in November, B. c. 49. The Romans reckoned their years from the foundation of the city (ab urbe condita), in the time of Augustus and subsequently; but in earlier times the years were reckoned by the names of the consuls. We also find traces of an aera from the banishment of the kings; and of another from the taking of the city by the Gauls. The date of the foundation of Rome is given differently by different authors. That which is most commonly followed is the one given by Varro, which corresponds to B. c. 753. It must be observed, that 753 A. U. C. is the first year before, and 754 A. U. C. the first year after the Christian aera. To find out the year B. C. corresponding to the year A. U. C., subtract the year A. U. c. from 754; thus, 605 A. U. c.—149 B. C. To find out the year A. D., corresponding to the year A. U. C., subtract 753 from the year A. U. C.; thus, 767 A. U. C.-14 a. D. AERA RII, those citizens of Rome who did not enjoy the perfect franchise, i. e. those who corresponded to the isoteles and atimi at Athens. The name is a regular adjective formed from aes (bronze), and its application to this particular class is due to the circumstance that, as the aerarii were protected by the state without being bound to military service, they naturally had to pay the aes militare, which was thus originally a charge on them. The persons who constituted this class were either the inhabitants of other towns which had a relation of isopolity with Rome (the inquilini), or clients and the descendants of freedmen. The decemvirs enrolled in the tribes all who were aerarians at that time : and when the tribes comprised the whole nation, the degradation of a citizen to the rank of an aerarian (which was called aerarium facere; referre aliquem in aerarios; or in tabulas Caeritum referri jubere), might be practised in the case of a patrician as well as of a plebeian. Hence, aerarians came to be used as a term of reproach. Respecting the Tribuni Aerarii, see TRIBUNUS. AERA RIUM, the public treasury at Rome. After the banishment of the kings, the temple of Saturn was used as the place for keeping the public treasure, and it continued to be so till the later times of the empire. Besides the public money, the standards of the legions were deposited in the aerarium, and also all decrees of the senate were entered there in books kept for the purpose. The aerarium was divided into two parts: |