2. ROMAN. The Romans viewed liberty as the natural state, and slavery as a condition which was contrary to the natural state. The mutual relation of slave and master among the Romans was expressed by the terms Servus and Dominus; and the power and interest which the dominus had over and in the slave was expressed by Dominium.

Slaves existed at Rome in the earliest times of which we have any record; but they do not appear to have been numerous under the kings and in the earliest ages of the republic. The different trades and the mechanical arts were chiefly carried on by the clients of the patricians, and the small farms in the country were cultivated for the most part by the labours of the proprieter and of his own family. But as the territories of the Roman state were extended, the patricians obtained possession of large estates out of the ager publicus, since it was the practice of the Romans to deprive a conquered people of part of their land. These estates probably required a larger number of hands for their cultivation than could readily be obtained among the free population, and since the freemen were constantly liable to be called away from their work to serve in the armies, the lands began to be cultivated almost entirely by slave labour. Through war and commerce slaves could easily be obtained, and at a cheap rate, and their number soon became so great, that the poorer class of freemen was thrown almost entirely out of employment. This state of things was one of the chief arguments used by Licinius and the Gracchi for limiting the quantity of public land which a person might possess. In Sicily, which supplied Rome with so great a quantity of corn, the number of agricultural slaves was immense: the oppressions to which they were exposed drove them twice to open rebellion, and their numbers enabled them to defy for a time the Roman power. The first of these servile wars began in B. C. 134 and ended in B. C. 132, and the second commenced in B. c. 102, and lasted almost four years.

Long, however, after it had become the custom to employ large gangs of slaves in the cultivation of the land, the number of those who served as personal attendants still continued to be small. Persons in good circumstances seem usually to have had one only to wait upon them, who was generally called by the name of his master with the word por (that is, puer) affixed to it, as Caipor, Lucipor, Marcipor, Publipor, Quintipor, &c. But during the latter times of the republic and under the empire

creased, and in every family of importance there were separate slaves to attend to all the necessities of domestic life. It was considered a reproach to a man not to keep a considerable number of slaves. The first question asked respecting a person's fortune was Quot pascit servos, "How many slaves does he keep?" Ten slaves seem to have been the lowest number which a person could keep in the age of Augustus, with a proper regard to respectability in society. The immense number of prisoners taken in the constant wars of the republic, and the increase of wealth and luxury, augmented the number of slaves to a prodi gious extent. A freedman under Augustus, who had lost much property in the civil wars, left at his death as many as 4,116. Two hundred was no uncommon number for one person to keep. The mechanical arts, which were formerly in the hands of the clients, were now entirely exercised by slaves: a natural growth of things, for where slaves perform certain duties or practise certain arts, such duties or arts will be thought degrading to a freeman. It must not be forgotten, that the games of the amphitheatre required an immense number of slaves trained for the purpose. [GLADIATORES.] Like the slaves in Sicily, the gladiators in Italy rose in B. c. 73 against their oppressors, and under the able generalship of Spartacus, defeated a Roman consular army, and were not subdued till B. c. 71, when 60,000 of them are said to have fallen in battle.

A slave could not contract a marriage. His cohabitation with a woman was contubernium; and no legal relation between him and his children was recognized.

A slave could have no property. He was not incapable of acquiring property, but his acquisitions belonged to his master.

Slaves were not only employed in the usual domestic offices and in the labours of the field, but also as factors or agents for their masters in the management of business, and as mechanics, artisans, and in every branch of industry. It may easily be conceived that, under these circumstances, especially as they were often entrusted with property to a large amount, there must have arisen a practice of allowing the slave to consider part of his gains as his own; this was his Peculium, a term also applicable to such acquisitions of a filiusfamilias as his father allowed him to consider as his own. [PATRIA POTESTAS.] According to strict law, the peculium was the property of the master, but according to usage, it was considered to be the property of the slave. Sometimes it was agreed between master and slave,

tain sum.

A runaway slave (fugitivus) could not lawfully be received or harboured. The master was entitled to pursue him wherever he pleased; and it was the duty of all authorities to give him aid in recovering the slave. It was the object of various laws to check the running away of slaves in every way, and accordingly a runaway slave could not legally be an object of sale. A class of persons called Fugitivarii made it their business to recover runaway slaves.

A person was a slave either jure gentium or jure civili. Under the republic, the chief supply of slaves arose from prisoners taken in war, who were sold by the quaestors with a crown on their heads (sub corona venire, vendere), and usually on the spot where they were taken, as the care of a large number of captives was inconvenient. Consequently slavedealers usually accompanied an army, and frequently after a great battle had been gained many thousands were sold at once, when the slave-dealers obtained them for a mere nothing. The slave trade was also carried on to a great extent, and after the fall of Corinth and Carthage, Delos was the chief mart for this traffic. When the Cilician pirates had possession of the Mediterranean as many as 10,000 slaves are said to have been imported and sold there in one day. A large number came from Thrace and the countries in the north of Europe, but the chief supply was from Africa, and more especially Asia, whence we frequently read of Phrygians, Lycians, Cappadocians, &c. as slaves. The trade of slave-dealers (mangones) was considered disreputable; but it was very lucrative, and great fortunes were frequently realised from it.

Slaves were usually sold by auction at Rome. They were placed either on a raised stone (hence de lapide emtus), or a raised platform (catasta), so that every one might see and handle them, even if they did not wish to purchase them. Purchasers usually took care to have them stripped naked, for slave-dealers had recourse to as many tricks to conceal personal defects as the horse-jockeys of medern times: sometimes purchasers called in the advice of medical men. Newly imported slaves had their feet whitened with chalk, and those that came from the East had their ears bored, which we know was a sign of slavery among many eastern nations. The slavemarket, like all other markets, was under the jurisdiction of the aediles, who made many regulations by edicts respecting the sale of slaves. The character of the slave was set

neck, which was a warranty to the purchaser: the vender was bound to announce fairly al. his defects, and if he gave a false account had to take him back within six months from the time of his sale, or make up to the purchaser what the latter had lost through obtaining an inferior kind of slave to what had been warranted. The chief points which the vender had to warrant, was the health of the slave, especially freedom from epilepsy, and that he had not a tendency to thievery, running away, or committing suicide. Slaves sold without any warranty wore at the time of sale a cap (pileus) upon their head. Slaves newly imported were generally preferred for common work those who had served long were considered artful (veteratores); and the pertness and impudence of those born in their master's house, called vernae, were proverbial.

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The value of slaves depended of course upon their qualifications; but under the empire the increase of luxury and the corruption of morals led purchasers to pay immense sums for beautiful slaves, or such as ministered to the caprice or whim of the purchaser. Eunuchs always fetched a very high price, and Martial speaks of beautiful boys who sold for as much as 100,000 or 200,000 sesterces each (8851.8s.4d. and 1770l. 16s. 8d.). Slaves who possessed a knowledge of any art which might bring in profit to their owners, also sold for a large sum. Thus literary men and doctors frequently fetched a high price, and also slaves fitted for the stage.

Slaves were divided into many various classes: the first division was into public or private. The former belonged to the state and public bodies, and their condition was preferable to that of the common slaves. They were less liable to be sold, and under less control than ordinary slaves: they also possessed the privilege of the testamenti factio to the amount of one half of their property, which shows that they were regarded in a different light from other slaves. Public slaves were employed to take care of the public buildings, and to attend upon magistrates and priests.

A body of slaves belonging to one person was called familia, but two were not considered sufficient to constitute a familia. Private slaves were divided into urban (familia urbana) and rustic (familia rustica); but the name of urban was given to those slaves who served in the villa or country residence as well as in the town house; so that the words urban and rustic rather characterized the nature of their occupations than the place where they served. Slaves were also ar

ranged in certain classes, which held a higher or a lower rank according to the nature of their occupation. These classes are, ordinarii, vulgares, and mediastini.

Ordinarii seems to have been those slaves who had the superintendence of certain parts of the housekeeping. They were always chosen from those who had the confidence of their master, and they generally had certain slaves under them. To this class the actores, procuratores, and dispensatores belong, who occur in the familia rustica as well as the familia urbana, but in the former are almost the same as the villici. They were stewerds or bailiffs. To the same class also belong the slaves who had the charge of the different stores, and who correspond to our housekeepers and butlers: they are called cellarii, promi, condi, procuratores peni, &c.

Vulgares included the great body of slaves in a house who had to attend to any particular duty in the house, and to minister to the domestic wants of their master. As there were distinct slaves or a distinct slave for almost every department of household economy, as bakers (pistores), cooks (coqui), confectioners (dulciarii), picklers (salmentarii), &c. it is unnecessary to mention these more particularly. This class also included the porters (ostiarii), the bed-chamber slaves (cubicularii), the litter-bearers (lecticarii), and all personal attendants of any kind.

Mediastini, the name given to slaves used for any common purpose, and was chiefly applied to certain slaves belonging to the familia

rustica.

The treatment of slaves of course varied greatly, according to the disposition of their masters, but they were upon the whole, as has been already remarked, treated with greater severity and cruelty than among the Athenians. Originally the master could use the slave as he pleased: under the republic the law does not seem to have protected the person or life of the slave at all, but the cruelty of masters was to some extent restrained under the empire by various enactments. In early times, when the number of slaves was small, they were treated with more indulgence, and more like members of the family: they joined their masters in offering up prayers and thanksgivings to the gods, and partook of their meals in common with their masters, though not at the same table with them, but upon benches (subsellia) placed at the foot of the lectus. But with the increase of numbers and of luxury among masters, the ancient simplicity of manners was changed: a certain quantity of food was allowed them (dimcnsum or demensum), which was

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granted them either monthly (menstruum), or daily (diarium). Their chief food was the corn, called far, of which either four or five modii were granted them a month, or one Roman pound (libra) a day. They also obtained an allowance of salt and oil: Cato allowed his slaves a sextarius of oil a month and a modius of salt a year. They also got a small quantity of wine, with an additional allowance on the Saturnalia and Compitalia, and sometimes fruit, but seldom vegetables. Butcher's meat seems to have been hardly ever given them.

Under the republic they were not allowed to serve in the army, though after the battle of Cannae, when the state was in imminent danger, 8000 slaves were purchased by the state for the army, and subsequently manumitted on account of their bravery.

The offences of slaves were punished with severity, and frequently with the utmost barbarity. One of the mildest punishments was the removal from the familia urbana to the rustica, where they were obliged to work in chains or fetters. They were frequently beaten with sticks or scourged with the whip.

Runaway slaves (fugitivi) and thieves (fures) were branded on the forehead with a mark (stigma), whence they are said to be notati or inscripti. Slaves were also punished by being hung up by their hands with weights suspended to their feet, or by being set to work in the Ergastulum or Pistrinum. [ERGASTULUM.] The carrying of the furca was a very common mode of punishment. [FURCA.] The toilet of the Roman ladies was a dreadful ordeal to the female slaves, who were often barbarously punished by their mistresses for the slightest mistake in the arrangement of the hair or a part of the dress.

Masters might work their slaves as many hours in the day as they pleased, but they usually allowed them holidays on the public festivals. At the festival of Saturnus in particular, special indulgences were granted to all slaves, of which an account is given under SATURNALIA.

There was no distinctive dress for slaves. It was once proposed in the senate to give slaves a distinctive costume, but it was rejected, since it was considered dangerous to show them their number. Male slaves were not allowed to wear the toga or bulla, nor females the stola, but otherwise they were dressed nearly in the same way as poor people, in clothes of a dark colour (pullati) and slippers (crepidae).

The rights of burial, however, were not denied to slaves, for, as the Romans regarded slavery as an institution of society, death was

SESTE RTIUS, a Roman coin, which properly belonged to the silver coinage, in which it was one-fourth of the denarius, and therefore equal to 2 asses. Hence the name, which is an abbreviation of semis tertius (sc. nummus), the Roman mode of expressing 24. The word nummus is often found expressed with sestertius, and often it stands alone, meaning sestertius.

Hence the symbol HS or IIS, which is used to designate the sestertius. It stands either for L LS (Libra Libra et Semis), or for IIS, the two Il's merely forming the numeral two (sc. asses or librae), and the whole being in either case equivalent to dupondius et semis. When the as was reduced to half an ounce, and the number of asses in the denarius was made sixteen instead of ten [As, DENARIUS], the sestertius was still of the denarius, and therefore contained no longer 24, but 4 asses. The old reckoning of 10 asses to the denarius was kept, however, in paying the troops. After this change the sestertius was coined in brass as well as in silver; the metal used for it was that called aurichalcum, which was much finer than the common aes, of which the asses were made.

The sum of 1000 sestertii was called sestertium. This was also denoted by the symbol H S, the obvious explanation of which is “IIS (21⁄2 millia)." The sestertium was always a sum of money, never a coin; the coin used in the payment of large sums was the denarius.

According to the value we have assigned to the DENARIUS, up to the time of Augustus,

we have

SEXTARIUS.

M sestertium (for sestertiorum)=M nummi=M nummum (for nummorum)= M sestertii nummi

M sestertium nummum sestertium. These forms are used with the numeral adjectives below 1000; sometimes millia is used instead of sestertia: sometimes both words are omitted: sometimes nummum or sestertium is added. For example, 600,000 sestertiisescenta sestertiasescenta millia: sescenta milliasescenta—sescenta sestertia nummum.

For sums of a thousand sestertia (i. e. a million sesterti) and upwards, the numeral adverbs in ies (decies, undecies, vicies, &c.) are used, with which the words centena millia (a hundred thousand) must be understood. With these adverbs the neuter singular sestertium is joined in the case required by the construction. Thus, decies sestertium=decies centena millia sestertium ten times a hundred thousand sestertii=1,000,000 sestertii 1000 sestertia millies H Smillies centena millia sestertium—a thousand times one hundred thousand sestertii= 100,000,000 sestertii— 100,000 sestertia.

When the numbers are written in cypher, it is often difficult to know whether sestertii or sestertia are meant. A distinction is sometimes made by a line placed over the numeral when sestertia are intended, or in other words, when the numeral is an adverb in ies. Thus HS. M. C. 1100 sestertii, but HS. M. C.-HS millies centies =110,000 sestertia 110,000,000 sestertii, Sesterce is sometimes used as an English word. If so, it ought to be used only as the translation of sestertius, never of sestertium. SEVIR. [EQUITES, p. 140.]

SEX SUFFRA'GIA. [EQUITES. p. 137.]
SEXTANS. [As.]

SEXTA RIUS, a Roman dry and liquid and hence its name. measure. It was one-sixth of the congius, It was divided, in the same manner as the As, into parts named uncia, sextans, quadrans, triens, quincunx, semissis, &c. The uncia, or twelfth part of the sextarius, was the CYATHUS; its sextans was therefore two cyathi, its quadrans three, its triens four, its quincunx five, &c.

SIBYLLINI.

SIGNA.

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SHIELDS. [CLIPEUS; PARMA; PELTA; SCUTUM.]

SHIPS. [NAVIS.]
SHOES. [CALCEUS.]

SIBYLLI'NI LIBRI. These books are said to have been obtained in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or according to other accounts in that of Tarquinius Superbus, when a Sibyl (Zißvλ2a), or prophetic woman, presented herself before the king, and offered nine books for sale. Upon the king refusing to purchase them, she went and burnt three, and then returned and demanded the same price for the remaining six as she had done for the nine. The king again refused to purchase them, whereupon she burnt three more, and demanded the same sum for the remaining three as she had done at first for the nine: the king's curiosity now became excited, so that he purchased the books, and then the Sibyl vanished. These books were probably written in Greek, as the later ones undoubtedly were. They were kept in a stone chest under ground in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, under the custody of certain officers, at first only two in number, but afterwards increased successively to ten and fifteen, of whom an account is given under DECEMVIRI. The public were not allowed to inspect the books, and they were only consulted by the officers, who had the charge of them, at the special command of the senate. They were not consulted, as the Greek oracles were, for the purpose of getting light concerning future events; but to learn what worship was required by the gods, when they had manifested their wrath by national calamities or prodigies. Acccordingly we find that the instruction they give is in the same spirit; prescribing what honour was to be paid to the deities already recognized, or what new ones were to be imported from abroad.

When the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was burnt in B. c. 82, the Sibylline books perished in the fire; and in order to restore them, ambassadors were sent to various towns in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, to make fresh collections, which on the rebuilding of the temple were deposited in the same place that the former had occupied.

The Sibylline books were also called Fata Sibyllina, and Libri Fatales. Along with the Sibylline books were preserved, under the guard of the same officers, the books of the two prophetic brothers, the Marcii, the Etrus

SICA, dim. SICILA, whence the English sickle, a curved dagger, adapted by its form to be concealed under the clothes, and therefore carried by robbers and murderers. Sica may be translated a scimitar, to distinguish it from PUGIO, which denoted a dagger of the common kind. Sicarius, though properly meaning one who murdered with the sica, was applied to murderers in general. Hence the forms de sicariis and inter sicarios were used in the criminal courts in reference to murder. Thus judicium inter sicarios, "a trial for murder ;" defendere inter sicarios, "to defend against a charge of murder."

SIGILLAʼRIA. [SATURNALIA.]

SIGNA MILITARIA (σημεία, σημαῖαι), military ensigns or standards. The most ancient standard employed by the Romans is said to have been a handful of straw fixed to the top of a spear or pole. Hence the company of soldiers belonging to it was called Manipulus. The bundle of hay or fern was soon succeeded by the figures of animals, viz. the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar. These appear to have corresponded to the five divisions of the Roman army as shown on p. 146. The eagle (aquila) was carried by the aquilifer in the midst of the hastati, and we may suppose the wolf to have been carried among the principes, and so on. In the second consulship of Marius, B. C. 104, the four quadrupeds were entirely laid aside as standards, the eagle being alone retained. It was made of silver or bronze, and with expanded wings, but was probably of a small size, since a standard-bearer (signifer) under Julius Caesar is said in circumstances of danger to have wrenched the eagle from its staff, and concealed it in the folds of his girdle.

Under the later emperors the eagle was carried, as it had been for many centuries, with the legion, a legion being on that account sometimes called aquila, and at the same time each cohort had for its own ensign the serpent or dragon (draco, dрúkwv), which was woven on a square piece of cloth, elevated on a gilt staff, to which a cross-bar was adapted for the purpose, and carried by the draconarius.

Another figure used in the standards was a ball (pila), supposed to have been emblematic of the dominion of Rome over the world and for the same reason a bronze figure of Victory was sometimes fixed at the top of the staff. (See the woodcut.) Under the eagle or other emblem was often placed a head of the reign