SATURNALIA. the hypodema to real shoes. The piece of SANDAPILA. [FUNUS, p. 162.] SARRA CUM, a kind of common cart or waggon, which was used by the country-people of Italy for conveying the produce of their fields, trees, and the like, from one place to another. SATURA, the root of which is sat, literally means a mixture of all sorts of things. The name was accordingly applied by the Romans in many ways, but always to things consisting of various parts or ingredients, e. g. lanx satura, an offering consisting of various fruits, such as were offered at harvest festivals and to Ceres; lex per saturam lata, a law which contained several distinct regulations at once; and to a species of poetry, afterwards called Satira. cestors the most rigid were wont to countenance card-playing on Christmas-eve; the whole population threw off the toga, wore a loose gown, called synthesis, and walked about with the pileus on their heads, which reminds us of the dominos, the peaked caps, and other disguises worn by masques and mummers; the cerei were probably employed as the moccoli now are on the last night of the Carnival; and lastly, one of the amusements in private society was the election of a mock king, which at once calls to recollection the characteristic ceremony of Twelfth-night. During the republic, although the whole month of December was considered as dedicated to Saturn, only one day, the xiv. Kal. Jan. was set apart for the sacred rites of the divinity. When the month was lengthened by the addition of two days upon the adop tion of the Julian Calendar, the Saturnalia fell on the xvi. Kal. Jan., which gave rise to confusion and mistakes among the more ignorant portion of the people. To obviate this inconvenience, and allay all religious scruples, Augustus enacted that three whole days, the 17th, 18th, and 19th of December, should in all time coming be hallowed, thus embracing both the old and new style. Under the empire the merry-making lasted for seven days, and three different festivals were celebrated during this period. First SATURNALIA, the festival of Saturnus, to whom the inhabitants of Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts of civilized life. Falling towards the end of December, at the season when the agricultural labours of the year were fully completed, it was celebrated in ancient times by the rustic population as a sort of joyous harvest-home, and in every age was viewed by all classes of the community as a period of absolute relaxa-came the Saturnalia proper, commencing on tion and unrestrained merriment. During xvi. Kal. Jan., followed by the Opalia, anits continuance no public business could be ciently coincident with the Saturnalia, on transacted, the law courts were closed, the xiv. Kal. Jan.; these two together lasted for schools kept holiday, to commence a war five days, and the sixth and seventh were ocwas impious, to punish a malefactor involved cupied with the Sigillaria, so called from pollution. Special indulgences were granted little earthenware figures (sigilla, oscilla) exto the slaves of each domestic establishment; posed for sale at this season, and given as they were relieved from all ordinary toils, toys to children. were permitted to wear the pileus, the badge of freedom, were granted full freedom of speech, and partook of a banquet attired in the clothes of their masters, and were waited upon by them at table. SCALES. [LIBRA.] SCENA. [THEATRUM.] SCEPTRUM (σкйπтроν), which originally denoted a simple staff or walking-stick, was emblematic of station and authority. In anAll ranks devoted themselves to feasting cient authors the sceptre is represented as and mirth, presents were interchanged among belonging more especially to kings, princes, friends, cerei or wax tapers being the common and leaders of tribes: but it is also borne by offering of the more humble to their superiors, judges, by heralds, and by priests and seers. and crowds thronged the streets, shouting, To The sceptre descended from father to son, Saturnalia (this was termed clamare Saturn- and might be committed to any one in order alia), while sacrifices were offered with un- to express the transfer of authority. Those covered head, from a conviction that no ill-who bore the sceptre swore by it, solemnly omened sight would interrupt the rites of taking it in the right hand and raising it tosuch a happy day. Many of the peculiar wards heaven. customs of this festival exhibit a remarkable resemblance to the sports of our own Christmas and of the Italian Carnival. Thus on the Saturnalia public gambling was allowed by the aediles, just as in the days of our an The following cut, representing Aeneas followed by Ascanius and carrying off his father Anchises, who holds the sceptre in his right hand, shows its form as worn by kings. The ivory sceptre of the kings of Rome, which 282 SCRIBAE. SCUTUM. descended to the consuls, was surmounted by | gratitude for his making public the various an eagle. R Sceptrum. SCHOENUS (ô, ʼn, oxoïvos), an Egyptian and Persian measure, the length of which is stated by Herodotus at 60 stadia, or 2 parasangs. It was used especially for measuring land. SCORPIO. [TORMENTUM.] forms of actions, which had previously been the exclusive property of the patricians [AcTIO]; but the returning officer refused to acquiesce in his election till he had given up his books and left his profession. SCRINIUM. [CAPSA.] SCRIPTA DUODECIM. [LATRUnculi.] SCRIPTU ́RA, that part of the revenue of the Roman republic which was derived from letting out, as pasture land, those portions of the ager publicus which were not taken into cultivation. The names for such parts of the ager publicus were, pascua publica, saltus, or silvae. They were let by the censors to the publicani, like all other vectigalia; and the persons who sent their cattle to graze on such public pastures had to pay a certain tax or duty to the publicani, which of course varied according to the number and quality of the cattle which they kept upon them. The publicani had to keep the list of persons who sent their cattle upon the public pastures, together with the number and quality of the cattle. From this registering (scribere) the duty itself was called scriptura, the public pasture land, ager scripturarius, and the publicani, or their agents who raised the tax, scripturarii. The Lex Thoria (B. C. 111) did away with the scriptura in Italy, where the public pastures were very numerous and extensive, SCRIBAE, public notaries or clerks, in especially in Apulia, and the lands themselves the pay of the Roman state. They were were now sold or distributed. In the provchiefly employed in making up the public ac-inces, where the public pastures were also counts, copying out laws, and recording the proceedings of the different functionaries of the state. The phrase scriptum facere was used to denote their occupation. Being very numerous, they were divided into companies or classes (decuriae), and were assigned by lot | to different magistrates, whence they were named Quaestorii, Aedilicii, or Praetorii, from the officers of state to whom they were attached. The appointment to the office of a "scriba" seems to have been either made on the nomination of a magistrate, or purchased. Horace, for instance, bought for himself a 'patent place as clerk in the treasury" (scriptum quaestorium comparavit). In Cicero's time, indeed, it seems that any one might become a scriba or public clerk, by purchase, and consequently, as freedmen and their sons were eligible, and constituted a great portion of the public clerks at Rome, the office was not highly esteemed, though frequently held by ingenui or freeborn citizens. Very few instances are recorded of the scribae being raised to the higher dignities of the state. Cn. Flavius, the scribe of Appius Claudius, was raised to the office of curule aedile in let out in the same manner, the practice continued until the time of the empire; but afterwards the scriptura is no longer mentioned. SCRUPULUM, or more properly SCRIPULUM or SCRIPLUM (уpáμμa), the smallest denomination of weight among the Romans. It was the 24th part of the UNCIA, or the 288th of the LIBRA, and therefore 18.06 grains English, which is about the average weight of the scrupular aurei still in existence. [AuRUM.] As a square measure, it was the smallest division of the jugerum, which contained 288 scrupula. [JUGERUM.] SCUTUM (Ovpɛóç), the Roman shield, worn by the heavy-armed infantry, instead of being round, like the Greek CLIPEUS, was adapted to the form of the human body, by being made either oval or of the shape of a door (Oúpa), which it also resembled in being made of wood or wicker-work, and from which consequently its Greek name was derived. Its form is shown in the following cut. Polybius says that the dimensions of the scutum were 4 feet by 21. Scuta, Shields. SELLA. SCY TALE (σKvтáλn) is the name applied to a secret mode of writing, by which the Spartan ephors communicated with their kings and generals when abroad. When a king or general left Sparta, the ephors gave to him a staff of a definite length and thickness, and retained for themselves another of precisely the same size. When they had any communications to make to him, they cut the material upon which they intended to write into the shape of a narrow riband, wound it round their staff, and then wrote upon it the message which they had to send to nim. When the strip of writing material was taken from the staff, nothing but single letters appeared, and in this state the strip was sent to the general, who after having wound it round his staff, was able to read the communication. SECTIO, the sale of a man's property by the state (publice). This was done in consequence of a condemnatio, and for the purpose of repayment to the state of such sums of money as the condemned person had improperly appropriated; or in consequence of a proscriptio. Sometimes the things sold were called sectio. Those who bought the property were called sectores. The property was sold sub hasta, SECTOR. [SECTIO.] SECURIS ἀξίνη, πέλεκυς), an axe or hatchet. The axe was either made with a single edge, or with a blade or head on each side of the haft, the latter kind being denommated bipennis. The axe was used as a weapon of war chiefly by the Asiatic nations. It was a part of the Roman fasces. [FASCES.] SECUTORES. [GLADIATORES, p. 168.] SELLA, the general term for a seat or 283 chair of any description. 1. SELLA CURULIS, the chair of state. Curulis is derived by the ancient writers from currus, but it more probably contains the same root as curia. The sella curulis is said to have been used at Rome from a very remote period as an emblem of kingly power, having been imported, along with various other insignia of royalty, from Etruria. Under the republic the right of sitting upon this chair belonged to the consuls, praetors, curule aediles, and censors; to the flamen dialis; to the dictator, and to those whom he deputed to act under himself, as the magister equitum, since he might be said to comprehend all magistracies within himself. After the downfall of the constitution, it was assigned to the emperors also, or to their statues in their absence; to the augustales, and, perhaps, to the praefectus urbi. It was displayed upon all great public occasions, especially in the circus and theatre; and it was the seat of the praetor when he administered justice. In the provinces it was assumed by inferior magistrates, when they exercised proconsular or propraetorian authority. We find it occasionally exhibited on the medals of foreign monarchs likewise, for it was the practice of the Romans to present a curule chair, an ivory sceptre, a toga praetexta, and such like ornaments, as tokens of respect and confidence to those rulers whose friendship they desired to cultivate. The sella curulis appears from the first to have been ornamented with ivory; and at a later period it was overlaid with gold. In shape it was extremely plain, closely resembling a common folding camp-stool with crooked legs. The form of the sella curulis, as it is commonly represented upon the denarii of the Roman families, is given in p. 151. In the following cut are represented two pair of Sellae Curules. 284 SELLA. SENATUS. bronze legs, belonging to a sella curulis, and | seen represented in ancient frescoes, many likewise a sella curulis itself. 2. BISELLIUM. The word is found in no classical author except Varro, according to whom it means a seat large enough to contain two persons. Two bronze bissellia were discovered at Pompeii, and thus all uncertainty with regard to the form of the seat has been removed. One of these is here represented. displaying great taste. The first of the following cuts represents a bronze chair from the museum of Naples; the second two chairs, of which the one on the right hand is in the Vatican, and the other is taken from a painting at Pompeii. 3. SELLA GESTATORIA, or FERTORIA, a sedan used both in town and country, and by men as well as by women. It is expressly distinguished from the LECTICA, a portable bed or sofa, in which the person carried lay in a recumbent position, while the sella was a portable chair, in which the occupant sat upright. It differed from the cathedra also, but in what the difference consisted, it is not easy to determine. [CATHEDRA.] It appears not to have been introduced until long after the lectica was common, since we scarcely, if ever, find any allusion to it until the period of the empire. The sella was sometimes entirely open, but more frequently shut in. It was made sometimes of plain leather, and sometimes ornamented with bone, ivory, silver, or gold, according to the fortune of the proprietor. It was furnished with a pillow to support the head and neck (cervical): the motion was so easy that one might study without inconvenience, while at the same time it afforded a healthful exercise. 4. Chairs for ordinary domestic purposes have been discovered in excavations, or are Bronze Chair. 鼎玉 Sellae, Chairs. SEMIS, SEMISSIS. [As.] SEMU'NCIA. [UNCIA.] SEMUNCIA'RIUM FENUS. [FENUS.] SENATE, Athenian [BOULE], Spartan [GEROUSIA], Roman [SENATUS]. SENA'TUS. In all the republics of antiquity the government was divided between a senate and a popular assembly; and in cases where a king stood at the head of affairs, as at Sparta and in early Rome, the king had little more than the executive. A senate in the early times was always regarded as an assembly of elders, which is in fact the meaning of the Roman senatus, as of the Spartan (yɛpovoía), and its members were elected from among the nobles of the nation. The number of senators in the ancient republics always bore a distinct relation to the number of tribes of which the nation was composed. [BOULE; GEROUSIA.] Hence in the earliest times, when Rome consisted of only one tribe, its senate consisted of one hundred members (senatores or patres; com pare PATRICII), and when the Sabine tribe | among the decem primi was the princeps senor the Tities became united with the Latin atus, who was appointed by the king, and tribe or the Ramnes, the number of sena- was at the same time custos urbis. [PRAEtors was increased to two hundred. This FECTUS URBI.] This FECTUS URBI.] Respecting the age at which number was again augmented to three hun- a person might be elected into the senate dred by Tarquinius Priscus, when the third during the kingly period, we know no more tribe or the Luceres became incorporated with than what is indicated by the name senator the Roman state. The new senators added itself, that is, that they were persons of adby Tarquinius Priscus were distinguished from vanced age. those belonging to the two older tribes by the appellation patres minorum gentium, as previously those who represented the Tities had been distinguished, by the same name, from those who represented the Ramnes. Under Tarquinius Superbus the number of senators is said to have become very much diminished, as he is reported to have put many to death and sent others in exile. This account however appears to be greatly exaggerated, and it is probable that several vacancies in the senate arose from many of the senators accompanying the tyrant into his exile. The vacancies which had thus arisen were filled up immediately after the establishment of the republic, when several noble plebeians of equestrian rank were made senators. These new senators were distinguished from the old ones by the name of Conscripti; and hence the customary mode of addressing the whole senate henceforth always was: Patres Conscripti, that is, Patres et Conscripti. The number of 300 senators appears to have remained unaltered for several centuries. The first permanent increase to their number was made by Sulla, and the senate seems henceforth to have consisted of between five and six hundred. Julius Caesar augmented the number to 900, and raised to this dignity even common soldiers, freedmen, and peregrini. Augustus cleared the senate of the unworthy members, who were contemptupusly called by the people Orcini senatores, and reduced its number to 600. In the time of the kings the senate was probably elected by the gentes, each gens appointing one member as its representative; and as there were 300 gentes, there were consequently 300 senators. The whole senate was divided into decuries, each of which corresponded to a curia. When the senate consisted of only one hundred members, there were accordingly only ten decuries of senators; and ten senators, one being taken from each decury, formed the Decem Primi, who represented the ten curies. When subsequently the representatives of the two other tribes were admitted into the senate, the Ramnes with their decem primi retained for a time their superiority over the two other tribes and gave their votes first. The first Soon after the establishment of the republic, though at what time is uncertain, the right of appointing senators passed from the gentes into the hands of the consuls, consular tribunes, and subsequently of the censors. At the same time, the right which the magistrates possessed of electing senators was by no means an arbitrary power, for the senators were usually taken from among those whom the people had previously invested with a magistracy, so that in reality the people themselves always nominated the candidates for the senate, which on this account remained, as before, a representative assembly. After the institution of the censorship, the censors alone had the right of introducing new members into the senate from among the ex-magistrates, and of excluding such as they deemed unworthy. [CENSOR.] The exclusion was affected by simply passing over their names, and not entering them on the lists of senators, whence such men were called Praeteriti Senatores. On one extraordinary occasion the eldest among the ex-censors was invested with dictatorial power for the purpose of filling up vacancies in the senate. As all curule magistrates, and also the quaestors, had by virtue of their office a seat in the senate, even if they had not been elected senators, we must distinguish between two classes of senators, viz., real senators, or such as had been regularly raised to their dignity by the magistrates or the censors, and such as had, by virtue of the office which they held or had held, a right to take their seat in the senate and to speak (sententiam dicere, jus sententiae), but not to vote. To this ordo senatorius also belonged the pontifex maximus and the flamen dialis. Though these senators had no right to vote, they might, when the real senators had voted, step over or join the one or the other party, whence they were called Senatores Pedarii, an appellation which had in former times been applied to those juniores who were not consulars. When at length all the state offices had become equally accessible to the plebeians and the patricians, and when the majority of offices were held by the former, their number in the senate naturally increased in proportion. The senate had gradually become an assembly rep |