this range of time he confined his observations. The period has been divided into four epochs, namely, (1) the Palæolithic or First Stone-age; (2) the Neolithic or Second Stone-age; (3) the Bronzeage; and (4) the Iron-age; so we cannot do better than consider their distinctive characters seriatim.

The Palæolithic age is the most ancient period in which we have any proofs of the existence of man, although there are faint indications of his presence in still earlier times. The antiquities belonging to this epoch are those which, occurring in beds of gravel and loess, as well as in caves, associated with the remains of extinct animals, have received so much attention from geologists and antiquaries during the last few years. The climate of Western Europe during this period was much colder than it is now, and the inhabitants used rude implements of stone (flint chiefly), which were not polished, and some types of which differ remarkably from any of those of later date; they were ignorant of pottery and of metals, as also are many races of savages at the present day.

During the Neolithic age in Europe polished stone axes and hand-made pottery were extensively used, long before the discovery or introduction of metals. To this period belong the Danish kjökkenmöddings, many of the Swiss lake-dwellings, and several of the tumuli or burial-mounds; but the objects referable to it do not occur in river-gravels. Domestic animals were reared, and agricultural pursuits were followed by the Neolithic people, who belonged, apparently, to at least two distinct races, as in the tumuli two forms of skull have been found-one long and the other round.

Implements of stone remained in use during the Bronze age, and those of bronze were chiefly copies of the former; the pottery was much better than that of the Neolithic age; and although much of it was still hand-made, some is said to show marks of the potter's wheel. Gold, amber, and glass were used for ornamental purposes; but silver, zinc, lead, and iron were apparently unknown, as well as coins and writing.

During the Iron age the metal which gives its name to the period was first used for weapons and cutting instruments, and here, Sir John Lubbock remarks, "we emerge into the broad and, in many respects, delusive glare of history." With the exception of the use of iron, the differences between the implements of this period and those of the Bronze age are mostly relative; e. g. "the objects which accompany bronze weapons are much more archaic than those which are found with weapons of iron." This fact, and "the frequent occurrence of iron blades with bronze handles, and the entire absence of the reverse," are sufficient to show that the use of iron must have succeeded and replaced that of bronze. Another fact of interest is, that the bronze associated with iron

frequently contains lead and zinc in considerable quantities. Besides these characteristics, we may mention that silver was used for ornaments, and that inscriptions of the Iron age have been discovered in more than one locality.

The foregoing is a mere outline, more or less indefinite, of the characteristics of these four epochs, as described by Sir John Lubbock; we have already filled in some of the details for the earlier ages in noticing the works of Messrs. Christy and Lartêt, and of Dr. Keller; but with respect to the later periods, we hope to have an apportunity of saying something more on a future

occasion.

3. ASTRONOMY.

(Including the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society.) SINCE our last Chronicle was in type, we have heard, with regret, of the death of Hermann Goldschmidt, the astronomer. The loss to science is a serious one. Originally intended to succeed his father as a merchant, Goldschmidt at the age of thirty commenced the study of painting. He pursued this art successfully for fifteen years, and was already forty-five years old when he turned his attention to astronomical observation. He devoted himself with such success to this new pursuit, that in the course of nine years he added thirteen new asteroids to the solar system, discovered many variable stars, and determined the places of 3,000 stars not marked in the charts published by the Academy of Berlin. It is to be noted, for the encouragement of amateurs, that the instruments used by Goldschmidt in effecting this important series of labours were of very moderate dimensions. We believe his most powerful instrument was a five-foot achromatic mounted on a movable tripod stand.

The Padre Secchi at Rome has attacked the spectrum-analysis of stars with considerable success. Before presenting the results attained by him, however, we must premise that interesting as they are, the method of observation does not seem comparable for accuracy to that pursued by Mr. Huggins and Professor Miller.

The spectrometer used by Secchi consists of a cylindrical lens (focal length, three inches) placed in front of and near the eye-piece. Beyond the lens is placed a prism of Amici, in which the deviation is nil. He recommends this arrangement as powerful, and also as cheaply applicable to amateurs' telescopes.

Secchi applies the following method of comparison :—the spectrometer being so placed that the lines in the spectrum are parallel to the celestial equator (that is, to the direction of the star's apparent motion) a known or comparison-star is brought on to one

of the threads of the finder; returning then to the large telescope the observer brings one of the points of the micrometer behind one of the principal lines of the star's spectrum. The star to be compared with the first is then brought under the same thread of the finder. If then the micrometer point coincides with a line of the spectrum, this line and the line of the first star's spectrum are evidently identical.

One of the most remarkable results (assuming its correctness) of Secchi's researches, is the observation that two stars-7 Cassiopeia, and 8 Lyræ-show bright lines. In y Cassiopeiæ, for instance, there are several bright lines, but one dominant line in the bluegreen, taking the place of a dark line-the well-known line F of hydrogen-in other star-spectra. The spectra of these two stars are compared by Secchi with the continuous spectrum crossed by bright lines given by magnesium.

The observation would seem to indicate that some stars owe their light in part to the luminosity of their gaseous envelopes, and notably to the presence of burning hydrogen.

Before leaving the subject of spectrum-analysis, we must note the investigation by M. Jansen, of Paris, of the formation of dark lines when light passes through aqueous vapour. He has ascertained that the intensity of certain lines seen in the solar spectrum varies with the amount of moisture present in the atmosphere. By transmitting the light of sixteen gas-burners through a tube filled with steam he reproduced all these lines. Father Secchi appears to have anticipated this discovery.

M. Chacornac has published an interesting paper on Comets. Space will not permit us to deal with the subject otherwise than briefly. He compares together the atmospheres of the sun, of planets, and of comets, under the several conditions of temperature and attraction to which those atmospheres are subject. In the case of planets it is possible that there should be an equilibrium between. the attractive force of the planet on the external layers of the atmosphere, and the elastic forces of the layers below; in such a case the atmosphere will have a definite limit. But this clearly cannot be the state of the atmospheres of comets near perihelion, nor of the solar atmosphere. Beyond the bounds of the solar attraction the forces of dilatation exhibit themselves as projective forces acting outwards from the solar periphery. The rays of the solar aureole, in total eclipses of the sun, indicate, by their configuration, the expansive force of gases violently projected into planetary space. To a similar expansive action, acting upon cometary atmospheres, the formation of cometary aigrettes is attributed, while the formation of comets' tails is ascribed to repulsion, produced by the expansive forces of the solar atmosphere.

M. Léon Foucault has devised a new method of solar observa

tion. This consists in covering an achromatic object-glass with a thin film of silver. Such a film, he finds, does not interfere with the definition of the sun. The rays from the less refrangible end of the spectrum are stopped, while the others suffice to exhibit the solar features. M. Leverrier pronounces very favourably on this arrangement, which "seems to promise," he says, more distinct views of the sun than have hitherto been obtained. Other observers find the details of the solar disc slightly "veiled" when thus viewed. It appears to us that there are several objections to the new method, and we should not recommend amateurs to have a valuable objectglass silvered, until something more is heard as to the possibility of restoring the glass to its original state.

But we hear of a contrivance by Messrs. G. and S. Merz of Munich, which seems to promise better views of the sun than have ever yet been obtained. In their solar eye-piece, two pairs of plane unsilvered glass mirrors are so placed, that, by rotating one pair, any part whatever of the sun's light may be intercepted. By this arrangement no false colour is introduced, as with blue, or neutral-tint glasses. Father Secchi says that films are seen with a frosy tint (the colour of the protuberances seen in solar eclipses), in the new ocular, which appeared blue in the common oculars.

The display of meteors (or Humboldt's star-shower, as some name the phenomenon) fully equalled the expectations of the most sanguine. Mr. Dawes considers that upwards of 3,500 fell before 2h. 15m., on the morning of November 14th. Mr. Talmage noted the following numbers in successive intervals of five minutes from 12h. 52m. to 2h. 12m.:-115, 125, 231, 324, 239, 214, 147, 104, 109, 57, 56, 31, 22, 28, 37, 20; showing that the maximum intensity of the shower occurred at about a quarter-past one. While Mr. Hind and M. Du Chaillu (who assisted him) note that "few of the meteors were remarkable for brilliancy or persistence of the trains," Mr. Harris, of Southern-hay, near Exeter, remarks, that at 1h. 15m. a very bright meteor burst, causing a light as bright as daylight, leaving a train which lasted for a quarter of an hour. This is probably the same meteor that is described by Mr. Heath as passing through the Pleiades at 1.30 A.M., and leaving a trail which did not disappear for four minutes. A more satisfactory observation of this "bright, particular star," is that made by Capt. Noble, the astronomer. He notes it as "a splendid one," hour 13h, 20m. 10s. (that is, 1h. 20m.) S.W. of Pleiades, leaving a train which lasted upwards of five minutes by the Observatory clock, and which gradually contracted into a fusiform mass (like 31 M. Andromedæ), then into an amorphous one, and finally disappeared behind a cloud. Some of these more permanent streaks, observed in the telescope, were found to be in focus with the stars,

indicating a distance of at least 40 or 50 miles. This observation is due to Mr. Bird, of Birmingham.

While on the subject of meteorites, we may note that the French Academy has received an intimation from Marshal Vaillant, that Marshal Bazaine has found an aerolite in Mexico weighing no less than 86 kilogrammes (considerably more than three-quarters of a ton!)

In the Astronomische Nachrichten' (No. 1,606) is an account from C. Behrmann, of Göttingen, of shooting stars coming out of a thick cloud, about 15° from the horizon. The cloud, which covered the sky, was so dense that meteors could not have been seen through it. He considers, therefore, that the stars were driven through the cloud, and came within one-tenth of a mile from the earth. It appears to us that we have read of phenomena strikingly resembling those described by M. Behrmann,-in Arago's Meteorological Essays, under the head globular lightnings.'

The planet Mars will be in opposition on January 10th, 1867, and though less favourably situated as respects distance than in November and December, 1864, or October, 1862, will be well worth careful study. In fact, the presentation of Mars, and the phenomena exhibited upon his surface, vary considerably from opposition to opposition; the complete study of the planet requires that he should be observed at oppositions occurring all round the ecliptic. As respects the oppositions of 1862 and 1864, we refer our readers to Professor Phillips's graphic paper in our volume for 1865. In the approaching opposition the Polar presentation of the planet (as seen in an inverting telescope) will be that shown in Fig. 1.

The outlines of continents and seas here marked in are obtained from the map accompanying the above-named article. By tracing (from Fig. 1) a series of meridian outlines, and