Dr. Thurnam also endeavours to draw a distinction as to the relative ages of the two forms of barrows, and states that no well authenticated instance of the finding of metal, or of the finer decorated pottery, with the primary interments in long barrows was known to him; but only objects of stone, bone, or horn, and a peculiar coarse kind of pottery. In the round barrows, on the coLtrary, "objects of bronze (very rarely of iron) and richly decorated pottery are often found, with or without objects of stone." The author therefore referred the long barrows to the Stone-age and the round ones to the Bronze-age, and the period of transition from that to the Iron-age.

In a paper "On the Natives of Madagascar," Mr. Thomas Wilkinson shows the existence in that island of two distinct races of men-one inhabiting the sea-coast and the other the interior of the island. "The former have woolly hair, brown or black skins, strong white teeth, and in fact all the characteristics of a superior order of Negroes. Within the last few years this race has been conquered by the people inhabiting the interior of the island, who are called Hovas, and are generally slender, often small, with, in many cases, long, straggling, unsound, and ugly teeth, straight coarse hair, and light-brown skins, with faces resembling those of the Chinese or of other Mongolian races."

In a paper entitled "On Physio-Anthropology, its Aim and Method," Dr. Hunt endeavours to divide his science into two portions, namely "Physio-Anthropology," or the doctrine of the functions of mankind, and "Physical Anthropology," or the doctrine of the forms of mankind; just as in Zoology and Botany we have the divisions of Morphology and Physiology. Still, from the tenour of the paper, this comparison, which is instituted by Dr. Hunt himself, does not seem to be quite parallel, otherwise Physio-Anthropology is simply Human Physiology. What then is this new department of the science of man? Dr. Hunt says, "By physio-anthropology I mean, not the philosophy of the human mind, but the science of the functions of mankind;" and he further illustrates his meaning and rescues it from obscurity by remarking, "I have quoted from Mr. Spencer chiefly to show that the term I have employed, differs in no essential respect from what that writer understands by human psychology generally." Apart from this subject, Dr. Hunt's paper is a resumé of opinions on the subject of Psychology, such as the question whether the size of the brain has any direct relation to intellectual power and capacity; the doctrines of phrenology; and many other kindred subjects of considerable interest, which are, we presume, the chief portions of Physio-Anthropology. It should be mentioned that Dr. Hunt partially justifies his classification and division of Anthropology by the action of the British Association last year. It is therefore un2 M

VOL. IV.

fortunate for his argument, that they have this year returned to their original classification of the sciences.

3. ASTRONOMY.

(Including the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society.)

THE question whether any change has really taken place in the lunar crater Linné still divides astronomers. Many distinguished observers have expressed the opinion that Linné continues unaltered. Mr. De la Rue considers that photographs of the moon taken before and since the period of Schmidt's supposed discovery, exhibit no such difference as to support the theory of change. The astronomers of Harvard College, Cambridge (U.S.), can discover no evidence of change with the magnificent refractor of their observatory. They are not, however, it would seem, opposed to the theory that changes may possibly take place upon the moon's surface, since they announce the occurrence of phenomena in Aristarchus, apparently due to the down-flow of lava-streams. Mr. Huggins also has given a view of Linné and a paper on the subject of Schmidt's discovery, in which he appears to oppose Schmidt's views. He states that Respighi considers the present appearance of the crater to be identical with that which it has always exhibited; but he adds that Lohrmann's description in 1823, and Mädler's in 1831, do not appear to be in accordance with either Schröter's observations or with the present condition of the object.

It is noteworthy that nearly every observer who has made the moon a subject of special study is convinced that a change has taken place. And not only so, but many distinguished lunarians are of opinion that the appearance of the spot is still changing. The black spot first seen on Linné by Mr. Buckingham on Dec. 14 under morning illumination, next by Herr Schmidt on December 26 under evening illumination, and resolved into a crater by Secchi on February 11, has now become so distinctly visible as to leave little doubt that the orifice in Linné has become enlarged in the interval.

The question has now arrived at a very interesting stage, and we trust that observation will be diligently pursued.

In connection with this subject we may note that Mr. Birt has just issued two lunar maps, in red outline, so that observers who find any traces of change may mark in the alterations in black ink. These maps are on the scale of 200 inches to the moon's diameter, and comprise the space included between 0° and 6° West longitude, and 0° and 10° South latitude.

Astronomers are of opinion that we may look this year for a recurrence of the November shooting-star shower. Assuming the position of the meteor-stream to have remained unchanged, the maximum display should take place at about seven o'clock on the morning of November 14. But if we assume the shifting of the node (investigated by Adams) to take place uniformly, the epoch of maximum intensity must be placed at about twenty minutes past seven or five minutes after sunrise. This determination, however, does not take into account temporary disturbances in the figure of the ring. The progression of the nodes is not uniform, but subject to variation; neither is the ring always in one plane; and occasionally one of the nodes may regrede for a time. From the position of Jupiter it would appear that the node we traverse in November is at present regreding. This would make the passage occur somewhat earlier, and it seems not unlikely that the maximum display will occur some time before sunrise on the morning of November 14th. The beginning of the display may be looked for several hours earlier.

Jupiter was seen without satellites by several observers on the evening of August 21. The only noteworthy fact we hear of in connection with this phenomenon, is the observation that the shadow of the fourth satellite appeared larger than that of the third, though the third is the larger satellite. This observation, if confirmed, would show that the apparent dimensions of the shadow depend rather on the extent of the penumbra than of the true shadow."

Mr. Proctor has obtained a new determination of Mars's rotationperiod. Mädler's determination, founded on seven years' observations, makes the period 24h. 37m. 23 8s. Kaiser extending his calculations over a longer interval obtained 24h. 37m. 22 6s. Mr. Proctor's determination combines observations by Hooke in 1665, by Sir W. Herschel in 1783, and by Dawes in 1864. The result is a period of 24h. 37m. 22·75s., with a probable error of one-fiftieth part of a second.

Mr. Stone has formed a table exhibiting the probable dimensions of seventy-one asteroids. On the assumption that their surfaces have equal reflective powers, the apparent brilliancy of these objects enables us to determine their relative dimensions. Mr. Stone then converts these results into miles by adopting the diameters of Ceres and Pallas resulting from the observations of Sir W. Herschel and Lamont. We append the diameters of the five largest and of the five smallest asteroids :

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Mr. Huggins has been able to analyze the light of another comet with the spectroscope. On May 4th and 8th he made observations of Comet II, 1867. In the telescope the comet appeared to consist of a slightly oval coma, surrounding a minute and not very bright nucleus. The latter was not central, but nearer to the following edge of the coma. The light of the coma formed a continuous spectrum. Mr. Huggins was unable, on account of the faintness of the nucleus, to distinguish with certainty the spectrum of its light from the broad spectrum of the coma on which it appeared projected. Once or twice he suspected the presence of two or three bright lines, but of this observation he was not certain. He considers that this small comet is probably similar in physical structure to Comet I, 1866.

Mr. Peters, of Hamilton College Observatory, Clinton (U.S.), has discovered another small planet, the sixth of his discoveries, the 92nd asteroid, and the 100th primary member of the solar system.

It has been discovered by Mr. Buckingham that the brilliant Vega, long known as a wide optical double, has two minute companions. Whether we are to look on Vega as a true triple star remains as yet undetermined.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

Mr. Airy discusses the curious but annoying tendency which is occasionally seen in the telescopic discs of stars to become triangular, when the wind is in the east or south-east. Mr Dawes's observations suffice to show that the peculiarity does not depend on the object-glass of the telescope. Mr. Airy is disposed to refer the phenomenon to the derangement of the nervous system which usually accompanies an east wind. In a remarkable instance mentioned by Mr. Dawes, east wind and fatigue were combined. Mr. Dawes himself, however, considers the phenomenon to be certainly independent of the observer; a view coincided in by Captain Noble, who rejoices in the digestion of an ostrich, but yet has been troubled by "triangular nights."

Another subject, touched on by the Astronomer Royal, is dealt with more at length by Captain Noble. We refer to the alleged change of focus required in observing stars widely separated in altitude. Captain Noble's observations appear to show that in the very finest observing weather no change of focus is required. But when, as is usual, there is an appreciable amount of vapour near the horizon, it becomes necessary to shorten the focus of a telescope directed to low objects.

Mr. C. Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer Royal for Scotland, supplies an abstract of a paper on the earliest provable traces of good

practical astronomy. He arranges ancient buildings into three classes:

1st. Those which have no definite astronomical position.
2nd. Those which are oriented so as to have the diagonals
of their bases towards the cardinal points.

3rd. Those which are oriented so as to have the sides of their
bases towards the cardinal points.

The diagonal method prevailed in Mesopotamia, and its most splendid example is the temple of Nebo (devoted to all the Planets) at Babylon. The direct form characterizes the Pyramids. Smyth finds by comparing his own measures of the Great Pyramid with Sir H. Rawlinson's measures of the Nebo building, that the former, though 1,500 years older, is oriented sixty times more accurately than the latter.

Major Tennant supplies a paper "On the Expansion of Brass Pendula used in the Indian Trigonometrical Survey." These pendula were swung in a vacuum apparatus, at a very low pressure of atmosphere. There is an anomaly in the results, which would appear to show that at a pressure of only 5 inches of mercury the coefficient of expansion of the brass pendulum must be not only increased, but is actually 13 per cent. greater than has ever before been assigned to brass. It would be singular if it should appear that the size of a solid may, under certain circumstances, be subject to a variation due to pressure alone.

Messrs. De la Rue, Stewart, and Loewy discuss some recent observations and remarks of Hofrath Schwabe's regarding sun-spots and other solar phenomena. Schwabe notices certain phenomena on the surface of the sun, which he has noticed since last December, and which he remembers to have before observed, but only at the time of a minimum in the number of sun-spots. The phenomena are-1st, a total absence of faculæ or faculous matter; 2nd, the absence of the usually observed scars, pores, and similar appearances; 3rd, an equal brightness of the whole surface, the limb being as luminous as the centre. At Schwabe's request the observations made at the Kew Observatory were carefully gone over. It was noticed that the phenomena occur only in years of minimum spotfrequency. Schwabe is disposed to trace a connection between sunspots and meteoric showers; and it certainly happens that the two epochs at which the phenomena he describes have been presented, coincided with the great shooting-star showers of 1866 and 1833. It also happened that in the year 1848, which is the middle of the 33 25-years period there was a maximum of spots. But it does not seem easy to reconcile the eleven-years spot-period with the 334years shower-period. If there had been a steady increase of spots from 1833 to 1848 and then a decrease to 1866 there would have