M. H. Smith, "On the Oxidation of Acids of the Lactic Series," was read; and also a note by the same authors, "On Limited Oxidation by Alkaline Permanganate." In this latter paper the authors pointed out the differences in the products of the oxidation of common alcohol by acid, and by alkaline permanganate. In the former case, acetic acid and aldehyde are produced, while in the latter nothing but oxalic acid is obtained. Lactic acid gave similar results. The authors pointed out a means of distinguishing between citric and tartaric acid by the use of a strongly alkaline solution of permanganate. Citric acid only carries the reduction to green manganate, while with tartaric the reduction to brown hydrated binoxide is complete. A paper, by Dr. F. C. Calvert, "On the Presence of Soluble Phosphates in Cotton Fibre, Seeds, &c.," was afterwards read. The author's experiments have led him to the conclusion that the whole of the phosphoric acid or phosphates is merely held mechanically distributed through the organic tissue, and may be wholly extracted by the action of water. He showed that cotton yarn steeped in water yielded a solution containing phosphoric acid, lime, and magnesia. Wheat, French beans, and walnuts gave similar results. The meeting on May 2 was occupied with a discussion, originated by Dr. Odling, on the use and misuse of the term "atomicity." The discussion was continued by Professors Williamson and Miller, who advocated the substitution of the term "equivalence," and by Dr. Thudicum, who has proposed the word "dynamicity." For a full report of this interesting discussion we must refer our readers to the Chemical Journals.* The last meeting we can notice was held on May 16. At this Mr. W. H. Perkins, F.R.S., made an interesting communication on the artificial formation of Coumarine. This substance, which was discovered by Delalande in the Tonquin Bean, has the formula C.H.O.. When gently heated with a solution of caustic potash it assimilates water, and becomes coumaric acid, C,H,O,; but when fused with hydrate of potash it splits up into salicylic and acetic acids. Mr. Perkins has found that by acting on the sodium compound of hydride of salicyle with acetic anhydride, he obtains a product completely identical with coumarine. The full details of the experiment the author reserves for a future communication. The Secretary then read a paper by Professor Rammelsberg, "On the Constitution of the Phosphites." The next paper was by Dr. Dupré, "On the Changes in the Proportion of Acid and Sugar in Grapes during the progress of Ripening." The author's experiments go to show that the amount of acid varies but little during the progress of ripening, while, of course, the proportion of sugar greatly increases. His inference is that the acid is not converted into sugar; although it may assist in the production. The next paper, "On the effects produced by the addition of Plaster of Paris to Must," was also read by Dr. Dupré. Wherever wine is made, the makers have the habit of adding plaster of Paris to the grape-juice either before or during the progress of fermentation. The author showed that the effect of this was to remove some of the tartaric, leaving the malic acid, and to introduce into the wine sulphates of potash and lime. He believes wine to be greatly deteriorated by the addition. A description of "An Adapter to be used in connection with a Sulphuretted Hydrogen Apparatus," contrived by the Rev. B. W. Gibsone, was then given by the secretary. For this we must refer our readers to the Chemical Journals. A valuable paper, "On the Practical Loss of Soda in the Alkali Manufacture," by Mr. C. R. Wright, was then read. The total loss in the process of converting common salt into refined ash is estimated by the author at 24 per cent. Mr. Wright has determined the amount of loss at different stages of the process, and his communication, when published at length, will afford valuable information to all manufacturers of soda. 6. ENGINEERING-CIVIL AND MECHANICAL. THE recent depression in engineering enterprise, consequent on the financial crisis of last year, has not yet recovered so far as to give any impetus to the prosecution of new undertakings. It is true that most descriptions of security have experienced a considerable rise in marketable value, but the public mind has evidently not yet sufficiently recovered from the shock it had received to enable it to look favourably on fresh enterprises as a means for investment, and consequently but few new works of any magnitude have at present any chance of finding supporters in the public money-market. At the same time, the cheapness of money and the abundance of floating capital seeking investment have been sufficient to provide for the completion of many works previously in course of construction. But this has not invariably been the case. The works of the Waterloo and Whitehall, and of the Metropolitan District Railways, are at present at a standstill, and doubtless many other promising undertakings are similarly languishing for want of funds. Amongst the lines of railway recently completed may be mentioned the Chemin de Fer du Ceinture at Paris, which was opened for passenger traffic throughout on Monday, the 25th February last. This line is 22 miles in extent, and almost completely encircles Paris within the fortifications. The Calais and Boulogne Railway was opened for passenger traffic on the 1st April, and by it half-an-hour is saved in the journey between Paris and London. The Charente Railway Company has opened a section from Rochefort to Saintes, and the Northern of France Company has opened a line 73 miles in length from Amiens to Rouen. At the commencement of the present year, the length of railway open in Spain was 3,182 miles; the distance in course of construction was 3563 miles, and 512 miles remained still to be commenced out of the lines conceded. The total extent of railways in Italy at the close of last year was 2,572 miles, 404 miles having been opened in the course of 1866. A line from Civita Vecchia to Nanziatella, which is to unite the Leghorn line to Rome via the Marennes, is now ready for traffic. Among the works especially deserving of notice on this line, are bridges over the Mignone, the Marta, the Arone, and the Fiera. By the transfer of Venetia to the kingdom of Italy, the network of Italian railways has been increased to the extent of 600 miles. An uninterrupted line of railway has now been established on the eastern side of the Italian Peninsula. The opening of the line from Ancona to Foligno and Rome, puts the North in communication with Naples, and Florence has now also uninterrupted railway communication with Rome. In Russia, surveys for great lines uniting the Baltic to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea are expected to be pushed forward; several applications have recently been addressed to the Russian Government for new lines, either from foreign or domestic capitalists. At the close of last year 885 miles of railway were decreed in Holland, of which 6167 miles were in operation, while 1933 miles were in course of construction, leaving 75 miles still to be constructed. In the course of 1866, about 110 miles of line were opened for traffic. In India there has recently been opened a further section of the line between Bombay and Calcutta, leaving only 200 miles yet to be completed in order to unite those two capitals. A section of railway between Delhi and Meerut was opened on the 15th of April; and a branch railway between Lucknow and Cawnpore was opened on the 23rd of April last. Trains have also within the last month commenced running on the Ceylon Railway. A new bridge has recently been completed on the Rhine between Manheim and Ludgwigshafen, consisting of three openings of 290 feet span each, and a project has been brought forward for the construction of another great bridge over the same river, near Dusseldorf. The Hoosac tunnel, the largest work of the kind yet attempted in America will be about 4 miles in length, and its sectional area 459 square feet. Only 4,600 feet, of about half the full section, has yet been penetrated at both ends; the central shaft is to be 1,030 feet deep; the tunnel itself is elliptical in section, 27 feet by 15 feet, and is now down 400 feet. The quay walls of the new Windmillcroft Dock on the Clyde were completed early in March last; this dock is 1,050 feet long by 250 feet broad, and has an area of rather more than 5 acres. The Norfolk Estuary Company have very recently completed another embankment of two miles in length at North Wooton, by means of which 700 acres has been added to that already reclaimed in the Wash, and makes a total of about 4,000 acres of the 32,000 to be recovered from the sea by that Company. We are informed that, after extensive soundings, Mr. Hawkshaw has abandoned his project for a submarine channel railway between England and France; and from a contemporary journal we observe that it is intended to make a subaqueous tubular bridge across the bed of the Mississippi at St. Louis, at which point the river is about half-a-mile broad. A great deal of progress is just now being made in the construction of telegraph lines, especially submarine. The Electric Telegraph Company have laid a second wire to the Isle of Wight; and a fresh cable has been laid between Hull and New Holland. In January last a submarine cable, 29 miles in length, was laid between Ceylon and the main land, being the first yet constructed on Mr. Hooper's principle, which principle has, we observe, obtained a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition. A contract was, not long since, signed with the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company for a submarine cable between Placentia, Newfoundland, and Sydney, Nova Scotia; and Messrs. Silver and Co. have recently manufactured a cable, 110 miles in length, for submergence between Florida and Cuba. The works on the Russo-American line have, it is stated, now been abandoned. An iceberg recently grounded within a mile-and-a-half of the Newfoundland coast and cut the new (1866) Atlantic cable, so that the old cable had for some time all the work to do by itself, but the fracture has now been successfully repaired. Before leaving the subject of telegraphy, we may notice that the Government have in preparation a scheme for acquiring a right over the whole of the telegraph lines throughout the United Kingdom, and to work them in connection with the Post Office. A bill for this purpose will be introduced as soon as the Reform Bill has been sent to the Upper House. The use of steel in locomotive construction is beginning to be more thought of than heretofore. There have been now at work for some years, on the Maryport and Carlisle Railway, several locomotives having steel boilers, fire-boxes, and tubes, as well as steel tyres, piston rods, and motion bars; and there have recently been constructed for the Paris and Sceaux line, and for the Southern Railway of France, several engines with steel boilers. The use of punched steel gun-barrels is rapidly extending, and the principle introduced by Messrs. Deakin and Johnson is being applied to other purposes connected with machinery. Bessemer steel is now beginning to be used for bridge construction, and it is stated that a recent French invention is likely to be able to compete successfully with the Bessemer process for the manufacture of steel. It may be accepted as a general belief that the age of iron is gradually passing away, and that in most cases where it is now employed, steel will shortly take its place, as being both stronger and lighter. The use of water-tube boilers may be classed as one of the inventions of the day, their increased strength and security contributing greatly to their popularity. Messrs. Howard, of Bedford, have recently tested their water-tube boilers to a pressure of 1,000 lbs. per square inch. It is reported that in America very heavy guns are now worked entirely by steam. A centrifugal gun has been invented by Dr. Steinheill, which, it is asserted, will throw from 60 to 100 bullets a minute, but the power necessary to obtain that result is not clearly stated. Major Palliser has been awarded 15,0007. for his pointed, or ogival-headed chilled shot, and in consequence of their great power of penetration experiments have lately been made of the manufacture of armour-plates having a steel face welded to an iron body, and of plates formed of alternate layers of iron and steel, with a view to obtaining greater strength without increasing the weight. 7. GEOGRAPHY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.) THE subject which of all others has attracted the interest of not only the Royal Geographical Society, but also of all who interest themselves in the annals of enterprise, is the probable fate of Dr. Livingstone. Some time since Dr. Kirk wrote from Zanzibar, giving a graphic and, as it seemed at the time, a probable account of the murder of the enthusiastic traveller by a warlike tribe on the western side of the lake Nyassa. The story was derived originally from certain Johanna men who had been with Dr. Livingstone, but who returned without him. Bit by bit the weak points of the account came out. The tale depended upon the evidence of one man, Moosa, who has proved unworthy of credit, inasmuch as he has since given another version of the same event; a white man is reported to have been travelling amongst more distant tribes, and Dr. Livingstone himself is said to have been |