respired air. In this apparatus the air is sometimes distributed to a particular kind of lamp at the same time as to the lungs, where an ordinary lamp or a Davy could not be used; but in this case an electric light burning in a closed tube is always the safest means of lighting. In the accompanying plate each of these three kinds of apparatus is represented; and for the drawings of the apparatus invented by M. Galibert, and that of M. Rouquayrol, we are indebted to La Vie Souterraine' of M. Simonin-a book of much interest, which we understand will be published in English by Messrs. Chapman and Hall.

Provided with this apparatus of Rouquayrol, a man can breathe with the same ease under water; some successful experiments have been made at the bottom of rivers and at the bottom of the sea. The apparatus is far preferable to the awkward and heavy apparatus which is usually worn by divers. In mines it may be used, if necessary, for working under water at the bottom of sinkings, as for repairing broken pumps.

In M. Rouquayrol's arrangements provision is made for supplying air to a lamp. A much more simple and ingenious arrangement has been invented in this country by Mr. Samuel Higgs, junior, of Penzance. The object of this invention is to provide a good and safe light in exploring the dangerous parts of coal mines, or, in cases of accident, to ensure a continuous light in searching for any unfortunate miners who may still be alive, but unable to escape without aid. The lamp consists of the best form of the Davy lamp, with a steel cylinder below it. Into this atmospheric air is condensed by an ordinary air-pump. There is a tube through which the 6 air is admitted to the flame, within the wiregauze, and the quantity required is regulated by a screw valve, as shown in the annexed woodcut. The weight of this lamp complete is not more than five pounds, and a good and safe light can be maintained for some time.

a

HIGGS'S SAFETY
EXPLORING
LAMP.

We call attention to these arrangements in the hope that they-or some modification of them-may be so far adopted as to be always at hand in collieries where they are working upon seams of coal known to be fiery.

It was our purpose to have remarked on the methods by which a safe and sufficient light is obtained for use in the coal-mines; and also to have examined into the value of Ansell's very ingenious Fire-damp Indicator. The question of ventilation, although popularly treated of, has, however, occupied the space which is, at present, at our disposal.

VI. BELGIAN COMPETITION IN THE IRON

MANUFACTURE.

By BERNHARD SAMUELSON, M.P.

To appreciate the capacity of a country for producing Iron, it is necessary in the first instance to ascertain its facilities for supplying fuel.

Belgium possesses extensive deposits of Coal, and an industrious population. The colliers of Belgium are content to earn on the average barely one-half the daily wages paid in this country; but owing to the great dip of the seams of coal, and to other causes, the labour of extraction is greatly in excess of that in most parts of the United Kingdom, and consequently the cost of labour per ton is far greater than in our coal-mines.

For instance, the average cost of ordinary labour in the pit and at the pit's mouth is, in the district of Liége, 3s. 2d. per ton, and in that of Hainault, 4s. 9d. per ton.

In three pits fairly representing the various conditions of coalmining in the North of England, the corresponding wages, during the last six months of 1866, were, on the average,—

No. 1 Pit.
18. 7d.

No. 2 Pit.
18. 6 d.

No. 3 Pit.
18. 10 d.

The charges for propping, &c., are proportionately greater in Belgium than in this country; and the general result is, that the price of coal at the pit's mouth per ton is, at Liége 10s. 6d. ; Hainault 13s., against North of England pits, 5s. to 6s. 6d. per ton.

So onerous are the prices of fuel to the Belgian iron manufacturers, that on the 8th of January they resolved, at a meeting held at Liége, to take measures for procuring a supply from the Prussian coal-fields.

Thus the average annual ratio of increase of production has been as nearly as possible the same (6 per cent.) in each country. But the increase alone on the two years in this country, is equivalent to the entire production of Belgium. The production of Iron in Belgium was

or about 11 per cent. per annum on 1861.

The production of Iron in the United Kingdom was

But it will be seen from the preceding figures that the average increase alone of the production of Iron in this country in two years is, like that of coal, in excess of the entire production of Belgium.

Of the 455,035 tons of Pig Iron produced in Belgium in 1865, about 370,000 tons were destined to be converted into manufactured Iron (the remainder being of a quality suitable for the foundry), and 276,277 tons of Wrought Iron were actually produced.

The wages of the Ironworkers are about equal to those of South Wales, but lower than those of any other part of the United Kingdom.

I am unable to compare this production usefully with that of the United Kingdom, as I do not consider the statistics of the production of Wrought Iron in England reliable, but it is possible to compare the Exports from the two countries.

Exports from Belgium of Iron and Iron-manufactures:

1864.

TOTAL... 180,870

1865. 136,360

Ten months of 1866.

87,771

Showing a gradual decline in the Export of Iron from Belgium. Taking the Exportation of rails, bars, &c., exclusive of Pig Iron or Castings, the result is similar.

Exports from Belgium of Malleable Iron :

Tons . .

1864. 148,530

1865. 125,649

Ten months of 1866.

74,693

And it may here be remarked, with reference to a contract for 40,000 tons of rails which it was reported would be given to the Belgian works, that the greater portion, if not the whole, has been actually taken by British manufacturers.

Turning now to the Exports of Iron from the United Kingdom we have in

1864.

Tons. . . . 1,476,130

1865. 1,593,632

1866. 1,647.345

showing an increase on each year, including the last, notwithstanding the derangements of various kinds which affected the Iron trade in 1866. The British quantities are exclusive of castings, &c., which are included in the Belgian figures.*

It has been stated further that Belgian and French Iron is being largely used in England. The Belgian Returns show that the Export of Iron from Belgium to the United Kingdom was—

and the total Export of Iron manufactured in France to all countries in the first eleven months of 1866, was 2,494 tons; so that it is needless to inquire what proportion of French iron came to this country.

N.B.-The entire Export of Iron from France in the eleven months was 37,578 tons, but the whole of this quantity, except the above 2,494, consisted of foreign Iron.

I have not been able to obtain any return of the imports of Foreign Machinery into the United Kingdom (Mr. Laird, M.P., has moved for a return of the quantities), but the Exports were as follows:

This slight falling off in 1866 is accounted for, as the detailed figures show, by an almost entire cessation of a large temporary demand for Egypt, and by a diminution of exports to Germany and Spain, arising in each case from obvious causes.

It may be useful to add, that we exported to Belgium in 1866 (partly, no doubt, in transit to Germany) machinery of the declared value of 151,2977.

It is unnecessary to offer any comment on these figures, as establishing the relative position of the iron manufacture in the two countries; but on the other hand, I would direct attention to the fact, that the exports of machinery to Belgium have, in the last five years, consisted chiefly of that used in spinning woollen and

*There is a considerable and increasing export of iron from the United Kingdom to Belgium, but it is included in the Board of Trade returns in that to "other countries," and not much information could be derived if it were published separately, inasmuch as a portion is iron in transitu to Germany.

worsted yarns, which, coupled with this other fact, that we imported during the first eleven months of 1866, woollen manufactures valued at 1,702,5697., is suggestive of competition in a branch of industry different from that to which public attention has been drawn.*

VII. MANCHESTER: ITS SANITARY AND SOCIAL STATE, AND ITS CORPORATE RULERS.

By GEORGE GREAVES, Consulting Medical Officer, Chorlton Union Hospital, &c.

THE increased attention happily paid, during the last quarter of a century, to sanitary science, beside adding greatly to our knowledge of the subject, has led to extended and more stringent legislation in reference to it. How the authorities intrusted with the care of the Public Health have used the increased knowledge and greater powers thus placed at their disposal, was shown to some extent in an article in a recent number of this Journal. The subject was, however, by no means exhausted; and it is one of such transcendent importance, that no apology can be necessary for recurring to it, unpleasant, and derogatory to our national pride as it is. In the ensuing remarks the inquiry will be limited to Manchester, because it is believed that, whatever be the shortcomings of the civic rulers of other places, nowhere are the laws of health more systematically violated than in Manchester by those whose special duty it is to obey them.

The metropolis of the manufacturing district has for years disputed with its chief seaport the bad distinction of being the most unhealthy town in Great Britain. In some recent weeks its deathrate has been higher than that of Liverpool. As the rate has been calculated for the whole city, including suburban districts almost as favourably circumstanced for health as many small country-towns, the mortality in other districts must necessarily be enormous. It has, in fact, recently been shown that in some of them the deaths have occasionally exceeded the births.

* The comparative statements relating to the manufacture of iron in this country and in Belgium, are founded chiefly on statistics recorded in the Trade returns of the two countries, in the reports of our legation at Brussels, and the publications and archives of the Keeper of Mining Records, supplemented, in a few instances, by information obtained from authentic private sources. To Mr. Robert Hunt, F.R.S., the Keeper of the Records referred to, and to the other gentlemen to whom I am indebted for assistance, my obligation is cordially acknowledged. 1,000 kilogrammes have been taken by me as being equal to a ton.