blue, encircling the whole or part of the dark disc of the earth, the remainder being dark and rugged with clouds. (437.) The best charts of the lunar surface are those of Cassini, of Russel, (engraved from drawings, made by the aid of a seven feet reflecting telescope,) the seleno-topographical charts of Lohrmann, and the very elaborate projection of Beer and Maedler accompanying their work already cited.* Madame Witte, a Hanoverian lady, has recently succeeded in producing from her own observations, aided by Maedler's charts, more than one complete model of the whole visible lunar hemisphere, of the most perfect kind, the result of incredible diligence and assiduity. Single craters have also been modelled on a large scale, both by her and Mr. Nasmyth. *The representations of Hevelius in his Selenographia, though not without great merit at the time, and fine specimens of his own engraving, are now become antiquated. CHAPTER VIII. OF TERRESTRIAL GRAVITY. OF THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVI- (438.) THE reader has now been made acquainted with the chief phenomena of the motions of the earth in its orbit round the sun, and of the moon about the earth. We come next to speak of the physical cause which maintains and perpetuates these motions, and causes the massive bodies so revolving to deviate continually from the directions they would naturally seek to follow, in pursuance of the first law of motion, and bend their courses. into curves concave to their centres. (439.) Whatever attempts may have been made by metaphysical writers to reason away the connection of cause and effect, and fritter it down into the unsatisfactory relation of habitual sequence, it is certain that the conception of some more real and intimate connection is quite as strongly impressed upon the human mind as that of the existence of an external world, the vindication of whose reality has (strange to say) been regarded as an Princip. Lex. i. See Brown" On Cause and Effect," a work of great acuteness and subtlety of reasoning on some points, but in which the whole train of argument is vitiated by one enormous oversight; the omission, namely, of a distinct and immediate personal consciousness of causation in his enumeration of that sequence of events, by which the volition of the mind is made to terminate in the motion of material objects. I mean the consciousness of effort, accompanied with intention thereby to accomplish an end, as a thing entirely distinct from mere desire or volition on the one hand, and from mere spasmodic contraction of muscles on the other. Brown, 3d edit., Edin. 1818, p. 47. (Note to edition of 1833.) achievement of no common merit in the annals of this branch of philosophy. It is our own immediate consciousness of effort, when we exert force to put matter in motion, or to oppose and neutralize force, which gives us this internal conviction of power and causation so far as it refers to the material world, and compels us to believe that whenever we see material objects put in motion from a state of rest, or deflected from their rectilinear paths and changed in their velocities if already in motion, it is in consequence of such an EFFORT somehow exerted, though not accompanied with our consciousness. That such an effort should be exerted with success through an interposed space, is no more dif ficult to conceive, than that our hand should communicate motion. to a stone, with which it is demonstrably not in contact. (440.) All bodies with which we are acquainted, when raised into the air and quietly abandoned, descend to the earth's surface in lines perpendicular to it. They are therefore urged thereto by a force or effort, which it is but reasonable to regard as the direct or indirect result of a consciousness and a will existing somewhere, though beyond our power to trace, which force we term gravity, and whose tendency or direction, as universal experience teaches, is towards the earth's centre; or rather, to speak strictly, with reference to its spheroidal figure, perpendicular to the surface of still water. But if we cast a body obliquely into the air, this tendency, though not extinguished or diminished, is materially modified in its ultimate effect. The upward impetus we give the stone is, it is true, after a time destroyed, and a downward one communicated to it, which ultimately brings it to the surface, where it is opposed in its further progress, and brought to rest. But all the while it has been continually deflected or bent aside from its rectilinear progress, and made to describe a curved line concave to the earth's centre; and having a highest point, vertex or apogee, just as the moon has in its orbit, where the direction of its motion is perpendicular to the radius. (441.) When the stone which we fling obliquely upwards meets and is stopped in its descent by the earth's surface, its motion is not towards the centre, but inclined to the earth's radius at the same angle as when it quitted our hand. As we are sure that, if not stopped by the resistance of the earth, it would continue to descend, and that obliquely, what presumption, we may ask, is there that it would ever reach the centre towards which its motion, in no part of its visible course, was ever directed? What reason have we to believe that it might not rather circulate round it, as the moon does round the earth, returning again to the point it set out from, after completing an elliptic orbit of which the earth's centre occupies the lower focus? And if so, is it not reasonable to imagine that the same force of gravity may (since we know that it is exerted at all accessible heights above the surface, and even in the highest regions of the atmosphere) extend as far as 60 radii of the earth, or to the moon? and may not this be the power,for some power there must be,-which deflects her at every instant from the tangent of her orbit, and keeps her in the elliptic path which experience teaches us she actually pursues? (442.) If a stone be whirled round at the end of a string it will stretch the string by a centrifugal force, which, if the speed of rotation be sufficiently increased, will at length break the string, and let the stone escape. However strong the string, it may, by a sufficient rotary velocity of the stone, be brought to the utmost tension it will bear without breaking; and if we know what weight it is capable of carrying, the velocity necessary for this purpose is easily calculated. Suppose, now, a string to connect the earth's centre with a weight at its surface, whose strength should be just sufficient to sustain that weight suspended from it. Let us, however, for a moment imagine gravity to have no existence, and that the weight is made to revolve with the limiting velocity which that string can barely counteract: then will its tension be just equal to the weight of the revolving body; and any power which should continually urge the body towards the centre with a force equal to its weight would perform the office, and might supply the place of the string, if divided. Divide it then, and in its place let gravity act, and the body will circulate as before; its tendency to the centre, or its weight, being just balanced by its centrifugal force. Knowing the radius of the earth, we can calculate by the principles of mechanics the periodical time in which a body so balanced must circulate to keep it up; and this appears to be 1h 23m 22. (443.) If we make the same calculation for a body at the distance of the moon, supposing its weight or gravity the same as at the earth's surface, we shall find the period required to be 10h 45m 30. The actual period of the moon's revolution, however, is 278 7h 43m; and hence it is clear that the moon's velocity is not nearly sufficient to sustain it against such a power, supposing it to revolve in a circle, or neglecting (for the present) the slight ellipticity of its orbit. In order that a body at the distance of the moon (or the moon itself) should be capable of keeping its distance from the earth by the outward effort of its centrifugal force, while yet its time of revolution should be what the moon's actually is, it will appear that gravity, instead of being as intense as at the surface, would require to be very nearly 3600 times less energetic; or, in other words, that its intensity is so enfeebled by the remoteness of the body on which it acts, as to be capable of producing in it, in the same time, only south part of the motion which it would impart to the same mass of matter at the earth's surface. (444.) The distance of the moon from the earth's centre is a very little less than sixty times the distance from the centre to the surface, and 3600: 1: 602: 12; so that the proportion in which we must admit the earth's gravity to be enfeebled at the moon's distance, if it be really the force which retains the moon in her orbit, must be (at least in this particular instance) that of the squares of the distances at which it is compared. Now, in such a diminution of energy with increase of distance, there is nothing prima facie inadmissible. Emanations from a centre, such as light and heat, do really diminish in intensity by increase of distance, and in this identical proportion; and though we cannot certainly argue much from this analogy, yet we do see that the power of magnetic and electric attractions and repulsions is actually enfeebled by distance, and much more rapidly than in the simple proportion of the increased distances. The argument therefore, stands thus:-On the one hand, Gravity is a real power, of whose agency we have daily experience. We know that it extends to the greatest accessible heights, and far beyond; and we see no reason for drawing a line at any particular height, and there asserting that it must cease entirely; though we have analogies to lead us to suppose its energy may diminish as we ascend to great heights from the surface, such as that of the moon. On the other hand we are sure the moon is urged towards the earth by some power which retains her in her orbit, and that the intensity of this * Newton, Princip. b. i., Prop. 4, Cor. 2. |