died in 1794.-See Ensayo de una Biblioteca Española de los mejores Escritores del Reynado de Carlos III, por Sempere y Guarinos (Madrid, 1789, 6 vols.).

YSENBURG. (See Isenburg.)

YTTRIA is the name of a very rare earth, discovered in the composition of a mineral found at Ytterby, in Sweden; hence its name. The name of the mineral is gadolinite. (q. v.) The earth may be obtained by fusing the gadolinite with two parts of caustic potash, washing the mass with boiling water, and filtering the liquor, which is of a fine green. This liquor is to be evaporated till no more oxide of manganese falls down from it in a black powder; after which the liquid is to be saturated with nitric acid. At the same time, digest the sediment. that was not dissolved in very dilute nitric acid, which will dissolve the earth with much heat, leaving the silex and the highly-oxidized iron undissolved. Mix the two liquors, evaporate them to dryness, redissolve and filter, which will separate any silex or oxide of iron that may have been left. A few drops of a solution of carbonate of potash will separate any lime that may be present; and a cautious addition of hydrosulphuret of potash will throw down the oxide of manganese that may have been left; but if too much be employed, it will throw down the yttria also. Lastly, the yttria is to be precipitated by pure ammonia, well washed and dried. It is perfectly white. Its specific gravity is 4.842. It has neither taste nor smell. It is infusible alone, but with borax, melts into a transparent glass, or opaquewhite, if the borax is in excess. It is in soluble in water, and in caustic fixed alkalies; but it dissolves in carbonate of ammonia, though it requires five or six times as much as glucine. It is soluble in most of the acids. The salts have the following general characters:-Many of them are insoluble in water. Precipitates are occasioned in those which dissolve, by phosphate of soda, carbonate of soda, oxalate of ammonia, tartrate of potash, and ferroprussiate of potash. If we except the sweet-tasted, soluble sulphate of yttria, the other salts of this earth resemble those with a base of lime in their solubility. When yttria is treated with potassium in the same manner as the other earths, similar results are obtained. The potassium becomes potash, and the earth assumes the appearance of a metal. Its texture is scaly; its color gray-black, and lustre perfectly metallic. This scaly texture distinguishes it from aluminum

and glucinum. Yttrium-for this is the name of the metallic base-is not oxidized either in air or water, at common temperatures; but, when heated to redness, it burns with splendor, and becomes yttria.

YTTRO-CERITE; a massive mineral, of a reddish, grayish-white, or violet-blue color. It occurs in crusts, sometimes having an indistinct cleavage; opaque: yields to the knife; specific gravity 3.447. Its constituents are oxide of cerium 13.15, yttria 14.6, lime 47.77, fluoric acid 24.45. It has hitherto been found only at Finbo, near Fahlun, in Sweden, imbedded in quartz.

YTTRO-TANTALITE occurs massive, bas a degree of hardness above apatite, a specific gravity of 5.3, or 5.8, a metallic lustre, and a blackish-brown color. It is opaque. Under the blow-pipe, it decrepitates at first, but melts, by an increase of heat, into a greenish-yellow slag. It consists, according to Vauquelin, of 45 oxide of columbium, 55 of yttria and oxide of iron. It is found, along with gadolinite, at Ytterby, in Sweden, but is exceedingly rare.

YUCATAN; the most easterly state of the Mexican confederacy, in the form of a peninsula, jutting out into the gulf of Mexico, bounded north-west by the gulf of Mexico, south-east by the bay of Honduras, south by Guatamala, south-west by the state of Vera Cruz. The isthmus which connects it with the continent of North America is about 120 miles wide. Square miles, 30,000; population, 496,990; chief towns, Merida, the capital, Campeachy, and Valladolid. The soil is very fertile, and, when under proper cultivation, produces great crops of cotton, tobacco, pepper, the sugar-cane, indigo, maize, and other kinds of grain. The scarcity of water in the central parts of the state renders the crops variable; and years occur in which the poorer classes are driven to seek subsistence from roots. Cattle, fowls, and bees, are very numerous; wax and honey plentiful; but there are no mines. The forests abound with wild beasts. The principal article of commerce is logwood. The climate is hot, the summer beginning in April and ending in September; but January and February are also warm. The English have some small settlements on the east coast of Yucatan for procuring logwood, the chief of which is at Balize.

YUG, in the Hindoo theology; the name of the ages of the world. The duration of the universe was fixed by the deity at 12,000 divine years, each of which contains 360 human years; so that the

whole amount is equal to 4,320,000 human years. This duration was divided into four ages, which are to each other as 4, 3, 2, 1. The first age, Krita-Yug, comprises 4000; the second, Treta-Yug, 3000; the third, Dwapar-Yug, 2000; the fourth, Kali-Yug, 1000 divine years. After each age, is a period of darkness, the first of 800, the second of 600, the third of 400, and the fourth of 200 divine years, which complete the period of 12,000 years. The whole period is called Maha-Yug, the great Yug, or Sadir-Yug, a period of four ages. 1000 Maha-Yugs form the day of Brama, from morning to evening; and an equal number his night, when he sleeps; the consequence of which is the dissolution of the universe into its original elements; so that every thing is sunk in a great sea. When Brama wakes, every thing revives. 360 such days form Brama's year, and he lives 100 such years. Upon his death, a general dissolution again takes place, and lasts 100 years of Brama: then Brama is born again, and the worlds begin their old alternation of existence and dissolution. The whole life of Brama is one day of Vishnu, from morning to evening. 360 such days make his year. He lives 100 years, and remains dead an equal period. Siva, alone, is immortal. This is evidently the doctrine of the votaries of Siva, while the worshippers of Vishnu claim a similar preeminence for their god. In the Bhagavat-Purana, it is further observed, that, during a day of Brama, or 1000 Maha-Yugs, fourteen dynasties (manvantaras) of men and gods follow each other: each, therefore, continues about 71 Maha-Yugs. Each has the name of its first ruler. We live in the seventh. Rhode has shown that Buddhism and Bramaism are mingled in this fable of the Yugs. The Yugs are also distinguished in a moral respect. As in the Persian, so in the Indian theology, virtue is made to decline in each successive age. It is represented under the figure of a steer, standing, in the first age, on four legs; in the second, on three; in the third, on two; and in the fourth, on The Zend-Avesta also says, in the first 1000 years Ormuzd and the good rule alone; in the second, Ahriman begins to appear; in the third the influence of Ormuzd and Ahriman is equal; and, in the fourth, Ahriman's power is superior. The present is the last age of the world, the Kali-Yug, which, according to the calculation of the Bramins, began thirty years after Krishna's death, or 3101 years

one.

before Christ; so that at present, in 1833, we live in the 4934th year of the KaliYug. Among those who were saved at the time of the third dissolution of the world, and passed over into the fourth Yug, was a pious king named Kistner, under whose government virtue continued to flourish. But now the steer (the symbol of virtue) stands only on one foot, and charity is the chief virtue to be practised. At the end of this age, after Kalighi's appearance, fire and water will destroy every thing, and the first Yug will be repeated, the sun, moon, and all the planets, being in the same sign of the zodiac as at the beginning of the world. Besides this, the Indians reckon by several other eras. (See Epoch; also Hindoo Mythology, in the article India.)

YULE; the name formerly given to Christmas. (q. v.)

YUMNA. (See Jumna.)

Yverdun, Iverdon, or IFFERTEN; & town of Switzerland, in Vaud, at the south end of the lake of Neufchatel, at the entrance of the river Orbe, on an island, 16 miles north of Lausanne, 34 south-west of Berne, 44 north-north-east of Geneva; population, 4000. It is delightfully situated, is neatly built, and has a public library, and a brisk traffic, chiefly in the transit of goods-an advantage which it owes to its command of water carriage, boats going from it into the Rhine, by the lakes of Neufchatel and Bienne, and the rivers Thiel and Aar. It has also considerable manufactures of linen, calico, &c. At this place is the school of the celebrated Pestalozzi, which was first established here in 1804, and an ancient castle appropriated to its accommodation by the government. There are several other establishments for education. The sulphur baths here were known even to the Romans.

YVERNOIS, Sir Francis d', a Genevan politician, was born at Geneva, in 175€, and received an excellent education in his native city. His restless ambition involved him in the disturbances which distracted the little republic, and he was banished in 1782. After the revolution in January, 1789, he returned to Geneva, and became counsellor of state. But, being unable to prevent the interference of the French republic in the internal affairs of Geneva, or to play a prominent part after the democratic party had attained the ascendency, he went to England, and made various journeys in Europe as travelling tutor to lord Eardley. In the mean time, Geneva had been united to

west of Mexico; lon. 101° 35′ W.; lat. 22° 50′ N.; population, 30,000. It is situated in a mountainous country, in the vicinity of some of the richest silver mines in Mexico, which are wrought by great numbers. It is well built, and contains a college, an hospital, a number of churches, and a mint, in which were coined, from 1810 to 1826, 32,108,185 dollars. Several other towns, as Sombrerete, Fresnillo, Jerez, Pinos, and Nochisltlan, have a population varying from 14,000 to 18,000 souls. Maize, wheat, chile, &c., are among the products. ZACH, Francis, baron von, one of the most eminent astronomers and mathematicians of our day, was born at Presburg, in 1754, and died at Paris, of the spasmodic cholera, in 1832. After having entered the Austrian military service, and passed some years in London, he was appointed grand chamberlain to the duchess dowager of Saxe-Gotha, who then resided at Eisenberg, and, in 1804 and 1805, accompanied her on a tour through France. From 1787 to 1806, he had the direction of the observatory at Seeberg. After that time, he resided chiefly abroad, and accompanied the duchess to Paris and Italy. In the latter country, through his influence, an observatory was erected at Naples, and another near Lucca. Baron von Zach also contributed much to extend the field of astronomical science by his writings, in which are united clearness and profoundness. His Geographical Ephemerides, and the continuation of the same work under the titles of Monthly Correspondence for promoting the Knowledge of the Heavens and the Earth, and Correspondance Astronomique, are works of great value. He also published several treatises on particular subjects, and was the author of many papers in different periodical publications. Of his works we will mention his treatise L'Attraction des Montagnes et ses Effets sur les Fils-à-Plomb (Avignon, 1814, 2 vols.); his Tabula Motuum Solis novæ et correcta (Gotha, 1792, 4to.); and his Almanacca Genovese, which he edited in Genoa.

ZACHARIE, Just Frederic William, one of the German authors who prepared the way for the advancement of German literature after the time of Gottsched, was born in 1726, and died in 1777, professor of belles-lettres in the Carolinum at Brunswick. His Renomist-the German word for disorderly students (see Russel's Germany) comic epos, published in 1742 and some other works, display hu

mor. His works appeared in a second edition, in 2 vols. (Brunswick, 1772). An additional volume was published in 1781. ZACHARIAH. (See Zechariah.) ZACINTHUS. (See Zante.)

ZADOC (Sadoc). (See Sudducees.)

ZAFFRE is the residuum of cobalt, after the sulphur, arsenic, and other volatile matters of arsenical cobalt, have been expelled by calcination. The zaffre that is commonly sold, and which comes from Saxony, is a mixture of oxide of cobalt with some vitrifiable earth. It is of a gray color.

ŽAFTLEEVEN, or SACHTLEEVEN, Hermann, one of the most skilful painters of landscapes, was born at Rotterdam, in 1609. He lived in Utrecht, and died in that city, in 1685. His views exhibit the environs of Utrecht, or Rhenish scenery. D'Argenville says that Zaftleeven visited Italy; but the Dutch writers deny this. He portrays nature under serene and elevated aspects; a smiling heaven overarches his cities and mountains, and a warm air breathes itself over the sunny and retiring distance. His paintings are scattered in different places. Descamps gives a list of his works. Zaftleeven also employed the etching needle. His brother Cornelius, born at Rotterdam, in 1612, was a successful painter of scenes from common life.

ZAGATAI. (See Tartary.)

ZAHARA, DESERT OF. (See Sahara.) ZÄHRINGEN; a village near Freiburg, in what was formerly the Austrian Brisgau, with the ruins of an ancient castle, from which the ancient dukes of Zähringen, the ancestors of the grand-dukes of Baden, derived their name.

ZAIMS, and TIMARIOTES, are possessors of Turkish fiefs, who, according to a law of the sultan Amurath I, in the fourteenth century, are bound to furnish spahis, or cavalry, as the condition of enjoying their fiefs. The Porte maintains only about ten or twelve thousand spahis (q. v.), who are paid by the government, and called kapikuly. The rest of the spahis are furnished by the possessors of timars. The number of all the zaims (i. e. such vassals as have a revenue of from 20,000 to 100,000 aspers annually from their fiefs) is about 6689. For every 5000 aspers, they must send one horseman into the field in time of war, so that a zaim cannot send less than four nor more than twenty spahis. The number of the timariotes, however, or of those vassals who have from 6000 to 19,999 aspers annually, amounts to 52,649. These must furnish one. spahi

for every 3000 aspers; therefore each of them from two to six spahis. Thus the minimum of their collective quotas is 134,054 men. In 1792, it was resolved to unite all the timars with the imperial domains, after the death of the possessors; upon which the government was to support the army. The number of troops, therefore, has not changed much. Be sides these troops, the Porte maintains another corps of cavalry, consisting of the former rifle makers and amorers. This kind of cavalry, called jebeddshy, is divided into sixty ortas, each of which, according to rule, should contain 500 men; but the number is never complete, and the ortas together never contain more than 18,000 men. Since the introduction of the European military system into Turkey, and the abolition of the janizaries (in 1826), part of the cavalry has also received another organization. Yet in many provinces, the military fiefs still remain, and are held upon the conditions above mentioned.

ZAIRE, or CONGO; a river of Africa, which is supposed to rise in about lat. 10° S., and which takes a northerly course to lat. 3o, in Congo (q. v.), after which it takes a south-west direction, and runs into the Atlantic at Fathomless point; lon. 12° 20′ E.; lat. 6° S. It is less than three miles wide at the mouth, has a very impetuous current, and pours a great mass of water into the ocean. In 1816, an expedition was fitted out from England to explore this river; but the company were unable to navigate the river, either with their sloop or with boats, farther than 120 miles. Leaving their sloop, they proceeded on foot 150 miles farther; but, meeting with insuperable difficulties, they were compelled to return.-See Tuckey's Expedition to explore the Zaire or Congo (4to., 1818).-It has been supposed by some, that the Zaire, or Congo, is the outlet for the waters of the Niger; but the discoveries of Lander have refuted this supposition. (See Niger.)

ZAJONCZEK, Joseph, prince, senator, general of infantry, viceroy of the king dom of Poland, born, in 1752, at Kaminieck, of a noble but poor family, like other young Polish noblemen, entered the army, became, in 1784, lieutenant-colonel, in 1793 colonel and commander of a regiment. He served in the war of Poland against Russia, and was made major-general. But Poland was overcome, and Zajonczek, with many others, emigrated to France. On his way thither, he was arrested in Gallicia, together with his broth27

VOL. XIII.

er, and both were imprisoned in Joseph stadt. When set at liberty, he went to Paris, and was made general of brigade in the French army in Italy. The Polish legion did great service in that war, and Zajonczek distinguished himself. He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt, anu afterwards commanded a division of French troops in Italy. In 1812, he accompanied Napoleon to Russia, where he lost a leg. He then quitted the French army. In 1815, the emperor Alexander appointed him viceroy, or namiestnik, in Poland. In 1818, he was made a prince. Nicholas confirmed him, in 1825, in his dignities and privileges. He died at Warsaw, July 28, 1826.

ZALEUCUS; the lawgiver of the republic of Locris, a Greek colony in Græcia Magna. (q. v.) He lived, according to some, 500 B. C., and was a disciple of Pythagoras; according to others, he lived as early as the seventh century B. C. Only a few disconnected notices of his life and laws can be gleaned from ancient authors. His laws seem to have been very severe. In order to suppress extravagance of dress, he ordained that prostitutes alone should wear jewels and ornaments of gold Adultery was to be punished by the loss of both eyes. The son of the lawgiver himself was convicted of this crime: the people, actuated by esteem for the father, prayed him to acquit his son; but Zaleucus remained inexorable. In order, however, to satisfy the demands of parental love, as well as the requisitions of the law, he condemned his son to lose one eye, to which he added one of his own. This is said to have had such an effect, that, as long as the lawgiver lived, no adultery was heard of in the republic of Locris. In order to maintain the authority of his laws, he ordained that every man who should propose a new law should appear with a rope round his neck, in order to be immediately strangled if the proposed law was not preferred to the existing one.

ZALUSKI; a Polish family, known in the literary and political history of their country.-Andrew Stanislaus, bishop of Cracow, died in 1758, and left his library of 20,000 volumes to the university of that city. His brother, Joseph Andrew, bishop of Kiow, published the Leges, Statuta, Consuetudines et Privilegia Regni Polonia (Warsaw, 1732, fol.). His Speci men Historicum Polonica Critica is also much valued. He died in 1774.-A count Joseph Zaluski, aid-de-camp of the emperor Alexander, was made curator of the uni