and, should the fermentation still continue, must be renewed as often as is necessary Sometimes must, strongly impregnated with sulphurous acid gas, is added to the wine, and answers the same purpose. After sulphuring, the greater proportion of wines require to be further clarified, or fined, before they attain a due brightness. For this purpose, various substances are used, which, by their chemical or mechanical action, unite with such materials as disturb the purity of the wine, and precipitate with them to the bottom. The substances in general use are isinglass and the white of eggs; but, as these are of a putrescent nature, gum Arabic has been used instead of them. In Spain, the white wines are sometimes clarified with fuller's earth: powdered marble, gypsuin, heated flints, beech-wood chips, sand, &c., are also used. When the wine has thus been prepared, it is almost always medicated, as it is called, before it is ready for the market; and very little wine is, in fact, a simple or natural liquor. One of the most common processes of medication is mixing different wines together, sometimes of the same quality or country, but often of different ones. For this purpose, that season is chosen in which the wines show a disposition to renew their fermentation. They are then said to bear the fret; and the operation is called fretting-in. The mixing different wines always disturbs both, so that they tend to ferment again; and when the fermentation is determined, they form a proper compound. In the wine countries, particular grapes (rough, or colored, or astringent, or high-flavored) are cultivated for the mere purpose of mixing their juice with that of others. Another process is that of mixing brandy with the natural liquor. The tendency of this substance, thus mixed, is to decompose the wines in process of time, causing the extractive matter, or mucilage, to be deposited, as well as the color, and, at the same time, to destoy their lightness and flavor. Few wines naturally possess much flavor; and the same is true, to a great degree, of color. It is therefore a part of the business of the manufacturer to communicate, artificially, such a flavor and color as the taste of the customer demands. This result is obtained in various ways, some of which continue a secret. The flavor, however, is often generated by the application of bitter almonds, oak chips, orrisroot, wormwood, rose-water, &c., while color is produced by the use of dyewoods, logwood, &c., berries, oak chips, burnt sugar, iron, &c. Both processes require to be managed with great delicacy and skill. Wines are red, when the black grape, with its skin, has been used, and of more or less yellowish-white color, when the white grape, or even when the black grape, freed of its skin, has been employed. Wines, with respect to their properties, may be divided into three princ pal divisions, viz. 1. the astringent or dry wines; such are those of Alicant, Bordeaux, Burgundy, Sherry, Madeira, &c. These wines contain a small quantity of tannin, which gives them a taste more or less harsh. 2. The sweet wines, such are Malaga, Rota, Rivesaltes, Lunel, &c., containing a tolerably large quantity of sugar, which has escaped fermentation. And, 3. the foaming or sparkling wines, such as champagne, which, being bottled up before they have undergone a perfect fermentation, contain a large quantity of carbonic acid gas in solution. All the wines give, on analysis, very nearly the same products, viz. water, alcohol, a little mucilage, coloring principles, supertartrate of potassa, tartrate of lime, acetic acid; and some of them contain, besides, carbonic acid; finally, a very volatile principle, which has not as yet been isolated, and to which the peculiar flavor or bouquet of the wine has been attributed. To the presence of alcohol they are principally indebted for their stimulant and diffusible properties; and this principle, which may be separated by distillation, exists in them in very different proportions, as may be perceived by the following table, drawn up by Mr. Brande : Names of the Wines, Malt and Spirituous Liquors, and the Proportion of Alcohol (specific gravity 0.825) in one hundred Parts of these Liquids by Measure. Lunel. 15.52 on the brain, notwithstanding the small Bordeaux wine or claret (average) 15.10 proportion of alcohol they contain, exer Sauterne 14.22 cise likewise a very decided diuretic in14.57 fluence. In regard to the dietetic or med14.63 ical qualities of the different sorts of wines, 13.80 we copy the following observations from 12.61 Henderson's valuable work (History of 12.32 Wines, quarto, 1824), from which we 13.37 have borrowed largely in compiling this 12.89 article. "1. Among the brisk wines, cham12.32 pagne may be considered the best, and is 12.08 the least noxious, even when drunk in 9.88 considerable quantity. The wines of 11.84 Champagne intoxicate speedily, probably 9.87 in consequence of the carbonic acid in 5.21 which they abound, and the volatile state 7.32 in which their alcohol is held; and the 6.87 excitement is of a more lively and agree6.80 able character, and shorter duration, than 4.20 that which is caused by any other species 1.28 of wine, and the subsequent exhaustion 53.39 less. Hence the moderate use of such 53.68 wines has been found, occasionally, to as51.60 sist the cure of hypochondriacal affections 54.32 and other nervous diseases, where the ap53.90* plication of an active and diffusible stimu lus was indicated. The opinion which prevails that they are apt to occasion the gout, seems to be contradicted by the infrequency of that disorder in the province where they are made; but they are generally admitted to be prejudicial to those habits in which that disorder is already formed, especially if it has originated from addiction to stronger liquors. With respect to this class of wines, however, it is to be observed that they are drunk too often in a raw state, when, of course, they must prove least wholesome; and that, in consequence of the want of proper cellars, and other causes which accelerate their consumption, they are very rarely kept long enough to attain their perfect maturity. It is also worthy of notice, that, in order to preserve their sweetness, and of champagne commonly add to each promote effervescence, the manufacturers bottle a portion of sirup, composed of sugar-candy and cream of tartar, the highly frothing kinds receiving the largest 18.40 quantity. Therefore, contrary to the pre7.36 vailing opinion," when the wine sparkleth 8.71 in the glass, and moveth itself aright," it is The action of wines upon the animal economy depends principally upon the quantity of alcohol they contain. However, a certain given quantity of wine does not act in the same way as a mixture of alcohol and water in the same proportions; and certain wines, yielding on distillation very nearly the same proportion of alcohol, do not inebriate with the same facility. This difference must be ascribed to the various kinds of combinations in which alcohol exists in these complex products. Astringent wines act as tonics and stimulants; and the sparkling wines, which act so promptly and so powerfully * Upon this subject Henderson remarks, that some of the wines analysed by Brande, were mixed with a considerable quantity of adventitious alcohol, and furnishes the following additions and corrections: 15.90 14.50 10.72 12.22 Many of these wines are, indeed, artificially compounded; but it is their artificial strength that it is most desirable to understand, because they are rately found in a natural state. It should be also observed that much of the wine here analysed is brandied expressly for the taste of the British market, and that in this country we receive it in a purer condition. most to be avoided, unless the attributes of age should countervail all its noxious properties. 2. The red wines of Burgundy are distinguished by greater spirituos ity, and a powerful aroma. Owing, per haps, to the predominance of the latter principle, they are much more heating than many other wines which contain à larger proportion of alcohol. The exhil aration, however, which they cause, is more innocent than that resulting from the use of heavier wines. The better sorts may be sometimes administered with advantage in disorders in which stimulant and subastringent tonics are required. The same observation will apply to the wines of the Rhone, and the lighter red wines of Spain and Portugal. 3. Possessing less aroma and spirit, but more astringency, than the produce of the Burgundy vineyards, the growths of the Bordelais are perhaps, of all kinds, the safest for daily use, as they rank among the most perfect light wines, and do not excite intoxication so readily as most others. They have, indeed, been condemned by some writers as productive of gout, but, I apprehend, without much reason. That with those people who are in the practice of soaking large quantities of Port and Madeira, an occasional debauch in claret may bring on a gouty paroxysm, is very possible; but the effect is to be ascribed chiefly to the transition from a strong brandied wine to a lighter beverage-a transition almost always followed by a greater or less derangement of the digestive organs. Besides, we must recollect, that the liquor which passes under the denomination of claret is generally a compounded wine. It is therefore unfair to impute to the wines of the Bordelais those mischiefs which, if they do arise in the manner alleged, are probably, in most instances, occasioned by the admixture of other vintages of less wholesome quality. 4. The wines of Oporto, which abound in the astringent principle, and derive additional potency from the brandy* added to them previously to exportation, may be serviceable in disorders of the alimentary canal, where gentle tonics are required. But the gallic acid renders them unfit for weak stomachs; and what astringent virtues they show will be found in greater perfection in the wines of Alicant and Rota, which contain more tannin and less acid. The excitement they induce is of a more sluggish nature than that attending the use of the purer French wines, and does not enliven the fancy in the same degree. As a frequent beverage, they are unquestionably much more pernicious. 5. For a long time, the vintages of Spain, and particularly the sacks, properly so called (see Sack), were preferred to all others for medicinal purposes. The wines of Xeres (Sherry) still recominend themselves by the almost total ab *These remarks are more particularly applica !le to the Port intended for the British market. sence of acidity. 6. Of all the strong wines, however, those of Madeira, when of good quality, seem the best adapted to invalids; being equally spirituous as Sherry, but possessing a more delicate flavor and aroma, and, though often slightly acidulous, agreeing better with dyspeptic habits. Some have thought them beneficial in cases of atonic gout, probably without much cause; for whenever a disposition to inflammatory disorders exists, the utility of any sort of fermented liquors is very doubtful. 7. The light wines of the Rhine, and those of the Moselle, are much more refrigerant than any of the preceding, and are frequently prescribed, in the countries where they grow, with a view to their diuretic properties. In certain species of fever, accompanied by a low pulse and great nervous exhaustion, they have been found to possess considerable efficacy, and may be given with more safety than most other kinds; as the proportion of alcohol in them is small, and its effects are moderated by the presence of free acids. They are also said to be of service in diminishing obesity. 8. It is difficult to conjecture on what circumstances the ancients founded their belief in the innocuous qualities of sweet wines, contrasted with the drier and more fully fermented kinds. They may not intoxicate so speedily, and, as they cloy sooner upon the palate, are perhaps generally drunk in greater moderation. When new, they are exceedingly apt to disorder the stomach; and when used too freely, they produce all the same effects as the heavier dry wines. In their more perfect state, they may answer the purpose of agreeable and useful cordials; but, as the excess of saccharine matter retards their stimulant operation, they ought always to be taken in small quantities at a time." Wines, Ancient and Modern. Our limits will only permit us to touch upon this part of the subject. Among the Greeks and Romans, the sweet wines were those most commonly in use; and, in preparing their wines, the ancients often inspissated them until they became of the consistence of honey, or even thicker These were diluted with water previously to their being drank; and, indeed, the habit of mixing wine with water seems to have prevailed much more in antiquity than in modern times. Among the principal Greek wines, the Maronean and Ismarian were of Thracian growth: the Pramnian, of uncertain growth, was a strong, hard, astringent liquor, resembling Port; but the luscious sweet wines are the favorite topics of the Grecian drinking songs. They were chiefly the products of the Ionian and Egean isles. The Chian was famous for its exquisite aroma, the Lesbian for its delicious flavor, and the Thasian was a generous sweet wine, acquiring by age a delicate odor of the apple. The Ariusian or Arivisian, and the Phanean, called by Virgil the king of wines, were products of Chios. Besides these and other indigenous growths, several African and Asiatic wines enjoyed a high reputation among the Greeks. The Bithynian wines were of the choicest quality: the wines of Byblos, in Phoenicia, vied in fragrancy with the Lesbian: the white wines of Mareotis and Trenia, in Egypt, were also famous for their delicate perfume. The finest wines used by the Romans were the produce of Campania (q. v.), which formed one continued vineyard. The Cecuban was a generous, light wine, but apt to affect the head, and ripening only after a long term of years. The Falernian, according to Henderson, was a strong, durable wine, being, when new, rough, harsh and fiery, and requiring to be kept a long time, before it attained a due degree of mellowness. The Setina was a delicate, light wine, the favorite of Augustus, but not even mentioned by Horace, who had a decided predilection for the strong wines. The Massican appears to have been a species of Falernian. The Calenum, Caulinum and Statanum were also highly prized by the Romans. The Albanian, when properly matured, was an excellent dry wine. Among the lighter growths of the Roman territory, the Sabine, Nomentan, Venafran and Spoletan were among the most agreeable. The Mamertine, a light and slightly astringent wine, and the Pollian, a sweet wine, were among the growths of Sicily. Spanish and Gallic wines were also used by the Romans, as well as the eastern growths. The richer wines were reserved by the ancients for the dessert; and among the Greeks the most esteemed dessert wines were the Thasian and Lesbian; among the Romans, the Cecuban, Albanian and Falernian of native growths, and, when they had become acquainted with the products of foreign countries, the Chian and Lesbian. Of the principal modern wines we have already spoken at considerable length under the separate heads. (See Burgundy, Bordelais, Champagne, Rhenish, Moselle, Hungarian, Sherry, Port, &c.) Madeira, so called VOL. XIII. 19 from the island which produces it, 18 much used in this country. There is a great difference in the flavor and other qualities of the Madeira wines: the best are produced on the south side of the island: they may be kept for a very long period, and, as is well known, are often sent long voyages in warm climates, to mellow them. They are naturally very strong, but commonly receive an addition of brandy when racked off. The Madeira wines retain their qualities unimpaired in both extremes of climate, suffering no decay, and constantly improving as they advance in age. Indeed, they are not in condition until they have been kept for ten years in wood, and afterwards allowed to mellow nearly twice that time in bottle; and even then they will hardly have reached the utmost perfection of which they are susceptible. When of good quality, and matured as above described, they lose all their original harshness, and acquire that agreeable pungency, that bitter sweetishness, which was so highly prized in the choicest wines of antiquity, uniting great strength and richness of flavor with an exceedingly fragrant and diffusible aroma. The nutty taste, which is often very marked, is not communicated, as some have imagined, by means of bitter almonds, but is inherent in the wine. The following state ment of wines imported into the U. States for the years ending (Sept.) 1829 and 1831, indicate the quantity used in this country. Year ending September, 1829. Madeira, Claret, &c., in bottles or cases, Madeira, Sherry, } Gallons. 282,660 23,562 62,689 352,350 61,467 356,332 1,838,251 2,977,311 Year ending September, 1831. (Treasury Report, May 4, 1832.) Red, of France and Spain, Gallons 114,625 78,905 934,451 1,888,355 663,725 3,680,062 WING. The wings of birds correspond to the fore legs of quadrupeds and the arms of man. The clavicle of birds is a hollow tube of great strength, and the fork is peculiar to winged animals. The lifferent bones of the wing are bound together, and connected with the bones of the body, by strong ligaments; and the muscles by which motion is communicated to them are the most powerful with which the animal is provided. All this peculiar apparatus is necessary to give due force to these instruments of locomotion. The construction and disposition of the feathers are not less curious, and admirably adapted for the purpose of flying. (See Feather, and Ornithology, for many details on this subject.) The best form of windmill sails, which human ingenuity and science have been able to devise, bears a striking resemblance to the arrangement of the feathers in the wings of birds, and is one of many beautiful instances of the mathematical exactness of the principles on which the works of creation are constructed. The form of the wings is most accurately adapted to the habits of the birds. There are two forms, which have received the names of the rudder-formed and the sail-formed wings: the former are long, slim and tapering, as in the falcons, swallows, &c.; the latter broad, long, and rounded at the end, as in the swan, goose, &c. The former are for quick, sudden and rapid motion, and are moved often; the latter for floating a long time more slowly through the air.-The wings of insects are membranous, elastic, for the most part transparent, and traversed by firm airvessels, which sometimes form a beautiful net-work. In some they are naked; in others, as in the butterflies, they are covered with fine, soft, feathery scales: in some they are extended and straight; in others folded. Some insects have four wings, and others but two: the latter are commonly provided with poisers or balancers (haleres). The difference in the structure and disposition of the wings is one of the distinctive marks on which the division of insects into orders is founded: dhus we have the hemiptera, the coleoptera, the lepidoptera, the neuroptera, &c. (See Insects, and Entomology.)-Quadrupeds which fly are provided with membranes extending over the bones of the extremities, by which they are enabled to impel themselves through the air (see Bat); others merely have the skin so loose on the sides as to be spread out when the limbs are extended; and, being buoyed up in this manner, they are able to make sur prising leaps. (See Squirrel.) The de sire of flying seems to have haunted men from the earliest times, and has given rise to many attempts to accomplish this ob ject by means of artificial wings. The fable of Daedalus and Icarus shows how old this idea is; and many attempts have been made, in modern times, to carry it into execution, but without success. Degen, an ingenious watch-maker of Vienna, succeeded in sustaining himself in the air by means of artificial wings; and he went to Paris, in 1813, to exhibit his accomplishment; but he failed entirely in obtaining any command over them. Borelli (De Motu Animalium,Rome, 1680) has fully demonstrated, from a comparison of the muscles of man with those of birds, that artificial wings attached to the human body, could not be employed for this purpose. It is by no means impossible, however, that they might be applied to produce motion through the air, by being connected with some sort of cars, and set in motion by steam. WINGED, in botany; a term applied to such stems of plants as are furnished, all their length, with a sort of membranaceous leaves, as the thistle, &c.-Winged leaves are such as consist of divers little leaves ranged in the same direction, so as to appear only as the same leaf. Such are the leaves of agrimony, acacia, ash, &c.-Winged seeds are such as have down or hairs on them, which, by the help of the wind, are carried to a distance. WINGS, in military affairs, are the two flanks or extremes of an army, ranged in order of battle.-Wings, in fortification, denote the longer sides of horn-works, crown-works, tenailles, and the light outworks, including the ramparts and parapets, with which they are bounded on the right and left from their gorge to their front. WINGOLF. (See Northern Mythology. WINKELRIED, Arnold von; a knigh. of the Swiss canton of Underwalden, who, in the battle at Sempach, July 9, 1386, by the sacrifice of his life, enabled his countrymen to defeat the troops of Leopold, duke of Austria. The long lances of the latter frustrated the efforts of the Swiss to break their ranks. Many of the Swiss had already fallen, when Arnold von Winkelried called out to his comrades, "I will make a lane for you faithful, dear confederates, think of my family," rushed on the enemy, grasped several lances, and, heedless of the thrusts, bore them to the ground. His countrymen |