theme, though they should never be very foreign to it. The overture to the Zauberflöte' affords a splendid example of this species. The Double Fugue consists of two or more subjects moving together, and dispersed among the different parts. Dom. Scarlatti's in D minor is a

double fugue which has no superior of its kind. The first few bars of this will more clearly explain than words can do the nature of so elaborate a species of composition.

Fugues of more than two subjects are classed, not very correctly,

Dic

Moderato.

&c.

among double fugues; they are, however, rare, for which reason perhaps they have never received a distinguishing name. Of these the fugue of four subjects in the finale to Mozart's grand symphony in C, and that of the same description in Handel's Alexander's Feast, the chorus Let Old Timotheus yield the prize,' are master-pieces of their kind. All of this species must be considered as free fugues. The term Fugue by Inversion requires little explanation. In this the theme is inverted, as the name implies, but the effect arising out of such contrivance is appreciable only by those who know its difficulty, and estimate its merit by the quantity of labour it has cost. In the Fugue by Augmentation, the notes of the answer are doubled in length. In the Fugue by Diminution, exactly the reverse takes place. There are

other kinds of Fugue, but they are now almost forgotten, and it would be useless to revive their names. Imitation is a species of fugue, and by theorists is generally treated on previously to and as the precursor of the latter. As the word indicates in this kind of composition, the theme is more or less imitated in the different parts. It is not required, says Fux (Gradus ad Parnassum), that every note should be imitated, but only some part of the subject; and Imitation is rather to take place in the middle than in the commencement of a composition. It may be made in any of the intervals, and in fact is governed by scarcely any rule. The learned contrapuntist just named gives the following as an example of Imitation in the Unison :

The effect of technical imitation in music is unquestionably great; it is felt by all who have the slightest skill in the art, therefore employed by all great composers of every school, ancient and modern. Canon, which is sometimes called a perpetual fugue, may perhaps be admitted, though cautiously, as part of a course of professional study, but should rarely, if ever, be allowed to pass the boundaries of the school. [CANON.] Fugue, but not of the pedantic or fantastic kind, should be an object of serious attention with those who are ambitious of becoming great composers, though in its severe form it ought to be almost confined to cathedral music and to the oratorio, and is admissible there only when introduced with great discretion, and guided by the hand of an experienced sensible master. But without that which is here to be understood by the term imitation-or the recurrence, in some shape, of the chief subject-music in parts, of even a very simple kind, loses one of its greatest beauties. Let it be used however with a view solely to effect: if resorted to for the mistaken purpose of displaying what a young or a dull composer may call his learning, imitation will prove to be nothing better than mere plodding, and capable of exciting no emotion except that which is the very reverse of pleasing. FULCRUM. [LEVER.]

FULGURITE. [LIGHTNING; and FULGURITE in NAT. HIST. DIV.] FULLING. [WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES.] FULMINATING MERCURY (HgO,, CN,O,). The compound of Fulminic Acid with mercury. It is prepared by dissolving 1 part of mercury in 12 of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·36, and then adding 11 parts of alcohol, sp. gr. 850. If a gentle heat be now applied by means of a water-bath violent reaction ensues, metallic mercury is deposited, and minute crystalline grains of fulminate of mercury separate, these must be washed with cold water and dried at 100° Fahr. They explode violently by percussion or heat, or by contact with sulphuric acid. The preparation even of small quantities of fulminating mercury is attended with considerable danger, and ought not to be attempted by any one unacquainted with chemical manipulation. Mixed with six times its weight of nitre it is used for priming percussion caps.

FULMINATING SILVER (2AgO, C,N,O,). This salt of fulminic acid is obtained by dissolving 1 grain of silver in 20 grains of nitric acid diluted with 50 grains of alcohol. The remaining processes are similar to those used for the preparation of fulminating mercury, than which it is still more dangerously explosive. [FULMINATING MERCURY.] FULMINIC ACID (2HO, NC,Ó2). An acid which is isomeric with cyanic acid [CYANIC ACID], that is, composed of the same elements in the same proportions, and they appear to have similar saturating powers. Fulminic acid has not yet been isolated, but it exists in the detonating mercury and silver discovered by Mr. Howard. These fulminates, as shown under the respective metals, are prepared by the simultaneous action of nitric acid and alcohol upon them in this operation the metals are oxidized, and such portions of the carbon of the alcohol, and nitrogen and oxygen of the decomposed

nitric acid combine, as to form the fulminic acid. Fulminic acid may be separated from the oxides of silver and of mercury, and combined with other bases, as with potash, and it still retains its power of forming detonating compounds. [CYANOGEN.]

FULMINURIC ACID (HO, CH, N, O,), Isocyanuric Acid. A recently discovered acid isomeric with cyanuric acid. The salts of this acid are obtained by boiling the different fulminates with a solution of a soluble chloride. They crystallise generally with facility, and explode feebly on the sudden application of heat. [CYANOGEN.] FUMARIC ACID. Boletic acid. This acid was first procured by Braconnot from the boletus pseudo-igniarius by the following process: the expressed juice is to be evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, and then treated with alcohol, which leaves a white matter; this is to be washed with alcohol, then dissolved in water, and precipitated with a solution of nitrate of lead; the precipitate diffused through water is to be decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen gas; by evaporating the remaining solution there are obtained impure crystals of fumaric acid, and a very acid mother-water, composed of fungic and phosphoric acids. The crystals of fumaric acid are redissolved in alcohol, which leaves a calcareous salt, and by evaporating the solution purer crystals of fumaric acid are procured. Fumaric acid may also be obtained by submitting malic acid to heat, and it is also present in Iceland moss, fumitory and other vegetables.

Fumaric acid is colourless, crystallises in four-sided prisms; its taste is acid, like that of bitartrate of potash; it reddens litmus, does not alter by exposure to the air; is gritty, like sand, between the teeth. It is soluble in 180 parts of water at 68°, and in 45 parts of alcohol. By heat the greater part of it is sublimed either in prismatic crystals or in fine powder; but towards the end of the operation some empyreumatic oil is formed, and there is a strong smell of acetic acid. It has the peculiar property of precipitating the peroxide of iron from solutions, but not the protoxide.

This acid forms salts with the alkalies and other bases; they are called fumarates. They are not important compounds, none of them being applied to any use. (Berzelius, Traité de Chimie,' tom. 5, p. 102.)

FUMARAMIDE (C.H.N,O,). When the fumarate of oxide of ethyl, which is a heavy oily liquid, is acted on by aqua ammoniæ, it forms a white insoluble powder, which is fumaramide, and possesses all the characters of a compound amide.

FUMARIMIDE (C‚Â ̧NO̟ ̧?). A reddish amorphous powder, formed by exposing bimalate of ammonia to a heat of about 400° Fahr. Heated for several hours with hydrochloric acid, it yields aspartic acid.

CH,NO,+4H0=C,H,NO,

Aspartic acid.

FUMIGATION is the application of the vapour or fumes from metallic or other preparations to the body, with the intention of healing

believe, by Dr. Callcott. The system of the Fundamental Base, founded on harmonics, and a continual addition of thirds to the triad, is indebted for its origin to Rameau, the celebrated French composer [RAMEAU, in BIOG. DIV.], and was once almost universally received. D'Alembert wrote a book to explain and eulogise it, and Marpurg, a most distinguished theorist, adopted it in his Handbuch bey dem Generalbasse.' But though it may be rendered in some degree serviceable in the analysis of chords, it is in more than one respect erroneous, and the rules drawn from it by its author would cruelly fetter genius, were they allowed to exert any influence on the composition of music. Rameau's once vaunted system is now therefore entirely laid aside, even in the country that gave it birth.

FUNDS; FUNDING SYSTEM. [NATIONAL DEBT.]

FUNERAL, the performance of the rites of sepulture or burial; generally supposed to be derived from the Latin funis, "a torch," because, at least in the Roman times, funerals were sometimes performed by torch-light. Others derive the word from phonos (póvos), "slaughter," as designating death.

The Egyptians are among the earliest people of whose religious ceremonies we have authentic accounts, more particularly in what related to their dead. Upon this occasion the parents and friends of the deceased put on mourning habits, and abstained from gaiety and entertainments. The mourning lasted from forty to seventy days, during which time the body was embalmed, and, when the process was completed, placed in a sort of chest, which was afterwards preserved either in their houses or in the sepulchres of their ancestors. Before the dead were allowed to be deposited in a tomb, they underwent a solemn judgment, upon an unfavourable issue of which they were deprived of the rite of burial. The funeral was conducted with great ceremony. The embalmed body was conveyed on a kind of sledge drawn by cows or oxen, or placed in a boat and towed along the river. In front of the bier, a seated figure representing Anubis is often seen in Egyptian paintings. The sledge was preceded by hired female mourners, with their breasts uncovered, and their hair hanging loose down their backs. The relatives followed, and priests were in attendance to perform the necessary religious ceremonies; but, judging from the ancient paintings of funerals, the arrangements varied considerably with persons of different ranks and at different times. (See Rossellini, plates No. cxxvii., &c.; and Wilkinson.)

Among the ancient Jews it is clear that great regard was paid to a due performance of the rites of sepulture. (Gen. xxiii. 2-4; I. 7-13; 2 Chron. xxxii. 33; Amos v. 16; and the references to interment generally throughout the Scriptures.) In Egypt and Babylon the Jews seem to have placed the body in a coffin; but elsewhere, both in the earlier ages and in the time of our Saviour, it was customary to wrap the corpse in linen cloths and carry it quickly to the tomb. That they sometimes burnt the body is clear; but burial in a sepulchre was the more usual fashion. (See further, Jahn, 'Jewish Antiquities,' §§ 205211, and the various commentators on the Bible. The circumstances attending the burial of the dead among the modern Jews are minutely detailed by D. Levi, in his 'Succinct Account' of their Rites and Ceremonies, pp. 162-170.)

In the religious creed both of the Greeks and Romans, sepulture was peculiarly an act of piety towards the dead, without which it was supposed the departed spirit could not reach a place of rest. To be deprived of the proper rites was considered the greatest misfortune (Homer, Od.,' v. 311, and xi. 66); and the abhorrence of certain crimes was strongly marked by the refusal of burial to criminals convicted of them. The funeral rites of the Greeks and Romans were in many respects similar, and among both nations the practice prevailed of burning the dead and collecting the ashes in urns. In the case of public funerals, according to Servius's Commentary on Virgil,' the deceased was kept seven or eight days, and every day washed with hot water, or sometimes with oil, that in case he were only in a slumber he might be waked; and at stated intervals, his friends, meeting, made a shout with the same view: this was called conclamatio. On the seventh day, if no signs of life appeared, he was dressed and placed on a couch in the vestibule, with the feet outwards, as if about to take his departure, a piece of coin being placed in his mouth for the purpose of paying the fee of the ferryman in Hades. In the course of these seven days, an altar was raised near the bed-side, called acerra, on which the friends offered incense. The scene here described is frequently represented in ancient bas-reliefs: several such are in the British Museum. On the seventh day the last "conclamatio" ended, when the couch and body were carried to the rostra, where the nearest of kin pronounced the funeral oration, and afterwards to the funeral pile. In the case of persons of importance, the funeral procession was often very splendid. The cost of funerals of persons dying intestate was determined by an officer appointed for the purpose. The body having been consumed, the ashes were gathered, inclosed in an urn, and finally laid in the sepulchre or tomb. An apotheosis, or canonisation, was frequently part of the funeral ceremony of the emperor. A banquet was a part of the funeral ceremony among both the Greeks and Romans. Although the practice of cremation was general with both people, interment was always more or less resorted to. The practice of burning the dead eventually gave way before the spread of Christianity.

In the British Museum are numerous marble cinerary urns (or those

whie à contained the ashes of the dead), both of Greek and Roman date, and others of painted earthenware, both Greek and Etruscan. There are also in the British Museum many solid funeral urns, which were merely commemorative of the deceased; as well as inscribed monumental tablets, and columns, or cippi. We give cuts of two of these Greek urns. The first, a fragment of a fine cinerary urn, is in the Elgin Saloon (No. 275). The young man and woman who are joining

that the standing figure in the centre of the bas-relief represents Pamphilus, son of Mixiades, of the deme Ægilia, the seated figure being his sister Archippe.

The funeral rites of the Greeks and Romans have been collected with great research by Guichard in his 'Funérailles, et diverses Manières d'ensevelir des Romains, Grecs, et autres Nations,' 4to, Lyon, 1581; by Meursius, in his treatise De Funere Græcorum et Romanorum,' 12mo, Hag. Com., 1604; by Gutherius, 'De Jure Manium, seu de Ritu, More, et Legibus prisci Funeris,' 12mo, Par., 1613, reprinted in 4to, 1615, and again in 8vo, Lips., 1671; and by Kirchman, 'De Funeribus Romanorum Libri IV., 12mo, Hamb., 1605, and Lugd. Bat., 1672. See also the Ceremonies Funèbres de toutes Nations,' par le Sr. Maret, 12mo, Par., 1677; Stackeberg, 'Die Gräber der Hellenen,' and Kirchman, ' De Funeribus Romanis.'

For the funeral rites of the early Christians, the reader may consult Gretser De Funere Christiano,' 4to, Ingolst., 1611; and he may learn the customs of a later period from Durand, who wrote his 'Rationale Divinorum Officiorum' in the 12th century.

Investigations among the sepulchral tumuli of the northern nations show clearly that though before the introduction of Christianity the practice of cremation prevailed, that of burying the dead unburnt was observed also in the later periods of the pre-historic era, in Norway and Denmark, as well as throughout Germany, France, and England. (See Worsaae's 'Primeval Antiquities of Denmark,' translated by W. J. Thoms, 1849; and the articles CROMLECH and TUMULUS.)

Tacitus, in his treatise De Moribus Germanorum,' (c. 27) notices the simplicity of the funerals among the ancient Germans. Like the Romans, they burned their dead. The things which a German valued

most were his arms and his horse: these were added to the funeral pile, with a persuasion that the deceased would have the same pursuits in his new state of existence. In the tomb of Childeric, king of the Franks, his spear, his sword, with his other warlike weapons, and even his horse's head, were found. (See Montfaucon, 'Monumens de la Monarchie Françoise,' tom. i. p. 10.)

Brand, in his Popular Antiquities,' vol. ii., p. 139 to 212, has much upon the English ceremonials, beginning with Watching with the Dead,' called in the North of England the Lake-Wake; he then proceeds with Laying out or streaking the Body;' setting salt or candles upon it; funeral entertainments; sin-eaters; mortuaries; following the corpse to the grave, and carrying evergreens, torches, and lights, at funerals; black used in mourning; the pall and under-bearers; doles and donations to the poor at funerals; church-yards; garlands in churches; and strewing flowers upon graves. Strutt's 'Manners and Customs,' Gough's Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain,' and 'Notes and Queries,' vols. vi. to xii. of series 1, are other works to which the reader may refer for the older funeral rites of England.

Funeral entertainments, called silicernia and cœnæ ferales by the Romans, are of very ancient date. They are still kept up in the north of England, and are there called arvals or arvils. Among some extracts from the Berkeley Manuscripts, we read that "From the death of Maurice, the fourth Lord Berkeley, which happened June 8th, 1368, until his interment, the reeve of his manor of Hinton spent three quarters and seven bushels of beans in fatting one hundred geese towards his funeral, and divers other reeves of manors the like, in geese, ducks, and other poultry." Walsingham, speaking of those who attended Richard II.'s funeral at Langley, in 1399, says, "Nec erat qui eos invitaret ad prandium post laborem." (Hist." p. 405.) Shakspere has a well-known allusion to these feasts in Hamlet,' act i. sc. 2:

"The funeral baked meats

Did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables."

Lafitau, Charlevoix, and other travellers describe funeral ceremonies not unlike some of those above noticed as prevalent among the savages of America. Robertson ('Hist. of Amer.' vol. ii., b. 4) says, as they imagine that departed spirits begin their career anew in the world whither they are gone, they bury together with the bodies of the dead, their bow, their arrows, and other weapons used in hunting or war; they deposit in their tomb the skins or stuffs of which they make garments, Indian corn, venison, domestic utensils, and whatever is reckoned among the necessaries in their simple mode of life.

FUNERAL ORATIONS, discourses at funerals, are of great antiquity. The second book of Thucydides (c. 35, &c.) contains the laboured harangue delivered by Pericles at the solemn funeral ceremony instituted in honour of those Athenians who fell at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war; and other similar orations are extant in Greek. Augustus, at the early age of twelve, performed this office for his grandmother, and afterwards, when emperor, for the young Marcellus. Tacitus tells us that Nero pronounced a funeral oration over Funeral orations were equally common his wife Poppaa. Christian martyrs; and Durand, in his 'Rationale,' says, "Ceterum priusquam corpus humo injecta contegatur, defunctus oratione funebri laudabatur." Fuller, in his Appeal of Injured Innocence' (part iii. p. 75), and Misson, in his Travels in England,' show the continuance of this practice to the close of the 17th century. Gay alludes to it in his 'Dirge :'

"Twenty good shillings in a rag I laid,
Be ten the parson's for his sermon paid."

over

The practice of delivering what may be properly called funeral orations, that is, addresses over the grave or at the interment of the dead by laymen, is common among the French, and is not unfrequent on great occasions among the people of the United States. In France the Oraisons Funèbres' of Bossuet and Fléchier have deservedly a high reputation.

FUNERAL SHOWS and GAMES frequently followed public funerals among the Greeks and Romans. An early example of this occurs in the funeral games celebrated by Achilles in honour of Patroclus. (Homer, 'Iliad.') As the dead were supposed to be delighted with blood, various animals, especially such as the deceased had been fond of, were slaughtered at the pile, and thrown into it: and, in still ruder times, captives or slaves. Among the Romans, gladiators, called bustuarii, were made to fight. Junius Brutus exhibited gladiators at his father's funeral; and the 'Adelphi' of Terence, at a later period, was produced for the first time at the funeral of Lucius Æmilius Paulus.

This acid, when pure, is colourless, very sour, uncrystallisable, and deliquescent; with lime it forms a salt difficult of solution, and with potash and soda deliquescent uncrystallisable salts; in these and some other properties it resembles impure malic acid. Some doubt exists as to whether it is a distinct acid, and M. Depaignes states that it is merely a mixture of malic, citric, and phosphoric acids. FUNGIN, the name given by Braconnot to the fleshy substance of mushrooms, purified by digestion in a hot weak solution of alkali: it is whitish, soft, insipid, and but little elastic, It is not acted upon by water, alcohol, ether, dilute sulphuric acid, potash, or soda; it is dissolved by hydrochloric acid when heated, and it decomposes and is decomposed by nitric acid; the results are much gas, oxalic acid, a bitter yellow matter, and two fatty substances, one of which resembles wax, and the other suet; the latter is most abundant. It is a highly nutritious substance, and in many of its properties it strongly resembles cellulose. [CELLULOSE.] FUNICULAR CURVE. [CATENARY.]

FUNICULAR MACHINE is a name given by some mechanicians to a cord or chain attached at one extremity to an immoveable point, the other end passing over a fixed pulley or friction wheel and having a weight suspended from it; a weight being also suspended from the cord or chain in some part of its length between the fixed extremity and the pulley. The cord or chain becomes thus a mechanical agent, since unequal weights, applied as has been said, may be in equilibrio.

Let A CB in a vertical plane be the position of a cord suspended between two points A and B, but capable of moving freely on a pulley at each of those points, and let w be a given weight suspended from any point c; the weights p and q, which should be applied to the cord, at the extremities vertically below A and B, in order to produce equilibrium, may be thus determined. Through c draw the vertical line cz to represent the weight w, and draw zm, zn parallel to BC, AC, respectively: then, by mechanics, the lines cm, cn will respectively represent the strains in the directions AC, BC, and consequently the weights p and q, which, in the case of equilibrium, must be equivalent to those strains. Now since the angles AC Z, BCZ are known, representing them by a and b, the sine of the angle cm z may be expressed by sin. (a+b); and by trigonometry,

therefore if the cord were attached to a fixed object at one end, as a or B, while capable of moving on a pulley at the other, and a weigh w were applied at any point c in its length, a weight q or p, found as above, would hold w in equilibrio.

Again, let the weights p, q, w, and the position of the pullies at A and B be given, the cord moving freely on the pullies and the weight w being capable of sliding by means of a ring along the cord; then the position of the parts AC, BC of the cord, when the system is in equilibrio, may be found in the following manner. Imagine mn to be the parallelogram of forces; then since cz, cm, zm may be represented respectively by the known quantities w, p, q, the values of the angles ACZ and czm or BCZ may be found by trigonometry. With these, by a geometrical construction, or otherwise, the required positions may be readily determined, since AC and BC make with horizontal lines, as ad, Be passing through A and B angles equal to the complements of a C Z, B CZ.

A cord suspended in a vertical plane between two fixed points and acted on by weights placed at different points in its length, is called a funicular polygon; and the form of the suspended cord being given, with the weight to be applied at one angular point as c, the weights at all the other angular points, in the case of equilibrium, may be found thus. Let A and B be angular points on the left and right of c, and having determined the strains represented by cm, cn by the parallelogram of forces at c, construct a parallelogram at a and another at B, having vertical lines passing through a and в for the directions of their diagonals, and having two sides of each coincident in direction with the adjacent sides of the funicular polygon, also making the sides (Ar and Bs) on AC and BC equal to to be suspended at a and c, in order to counteract the strains in a C and BC arising from the weight w at c. By forming parallelograms in a similar manner at the other angular points, the whole system may be in equilibrio. See 'Hutton's Tracts' (Tract 1, sect. 2, prop. i.).