for the count. The proximity of Dresden, with its rich treasures of art, and the acquaintance of some artists, awakened in him a love of the arts. To visit Italy, the native country and the home of the arts, was now the great object of his wishes. At length, father Rauch, the confessor of the king of Poland, enabled him to live in Rome by a sinall pension. In 1744, he formally einbraced the Catholic religion, and left the service of count Bunan; but, before going to Rome, he remained for a time in Dresden, devoted to the study of the arts. In the autumn of 1755, he set out for Rome with a pension from the king of 200 rix-dollars for two years. There he soon found friends and patrons, and had an audience of Benedict XIV, who received him graciously, and promised him his protection. Winckelmann now devoted himself to the study of the works of ancient and modern art. In the spring of 1758, he visited Naples, where he became acquainted with the most distinguished men, and obtained access to the antiquities of Portici, Herculaneum and Pompeii. After an absence of ten weeks, he returned to Rome. In September, 1758, at the repeated invitation of count Munzel Stosch, who had inherited from his uncle one of the richest and most beautiful cabinets of gems, he paid a visit to Florence, where he spent nine months in arranging and making a catalogue of that collection. This catalogue appeared at Florence, under the title Description des Pierres gravées du feu Baron de Štosch. About this time, he accepted the situation of librarian, and superintendent of antiquities to cardinal Albani, who gave him the use of his house, and a salary of 120 scudi. In the summer of 1760, he finished the Anmerkungen über die Baukunst der Alten, which was published two years after in Germany. In 1762, Winckelmann, in company with count Brühl, again visited Naples and its remarkable environs, and soon after gave the discoveries and observations made there to the public, in his Letter to Count Brühl respecting the Discoveries made at Herculaneum. Five years afterwards, he published his Monumenti antichi inediti, in the Italian language, and for the benefit of the Italians. In 1763, he published a small essay On the Perception of the Beautiful. In the same year, he was made superintendent of all the antiquities in and about Rome, with a monthly salary of 12-15 scudi. In the beginning of 1764, appeared his principal work, Geschichte der Kunst. In the same spring,

he made a third journey to Naples, the results of which he published in the Nachrichten von der neuesten Herculanischen Entdeckungen. In 1767, he published Notes to his History of Art. In April, 1768, he set out on a journey to Germany. He arrived at Vienna May 12, and was received with great honor by prince Kannitz and others, and was presented, at Schönbrunn, to the empress Maria Theresa, who received him with distinction, and bestowed upon him presents of value, and, in the beginning of June, he departed for Trieste. There he was joined by an Italian, named Francesco Arcangeli, a villain, who had been, a short time before, condemned to death in Vienna, but had been pardoned, and banished from the country. His obsequiousness won the confidence of the unsuspecting Winckelmann, who thoughtlessly showed him his gold medals, and other articles of value. Arcangeli undertook the care of the affairs of the journey, while Winckelmann remained in the inn. June 8, as he sat writing at table, the Italian entered his chamber to announce his sudden departure, and to take leave. He asked to see once more the gold medals; and, while Winckelmann was kneeling before the box, about to take them out, the Italian threw a noose around his neck, and inflicted five mortal stabs in the belly of the unfortunate man, and then fled, without taking any thing. He was subsequently apprehended, and broken on the wheel. Winckelmann expired in a few hours, having made his will, in which he appointed cardinal Albani his sole heir. His manuscript of the second edition of the Geschichte der Kunst, which he carried about him, came into the possession of the imperial academy of fine arts at Vienna, which, in 1776, caused an edition to be published from it. The great merit of Winckelmann consists in his elucidation of the principles of art, and his exhibition of the works of art in their true character and 'connexion. His treatises, moreover, contain a great mass of historical illustrations. With the exception of the Monumenti inediti, the Description des Pierres gravées, and the various collectious of letters, all his works may be found in the edition begun by Fernow, and finished by Meyer and Schulze (Dresden, 1808-17, 7 vols.)-See Gothe's excellent treatise Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert. A supplement to the biographical and literary notices of Winckelman has been published by Gurlitt (Hamburg, 1820).

WINCKELRIED. (See Winkelried.)

WIND; a sensible current in the atmosphere. The motions of the atmosphere are subject, in some degree, to the same laws as those of the denser fluids. If we remove a portion of water in a large reservoir, we see the surrounding water flow in to restore the equilibrium; and, if we impel in any direction a certain portion, an equal quantity moves in a contrary direction, from the same cause; or if a portion, being rarefied by heat, or condensed by cold, ascends in the one instance and descends in the other, a counter-current is the visible and natural result; and similar effects are found to follow the same causes in the atmospheric

fluid; thus no wind can .ow without a counter or opposite current; nor can any wind arise without a previous derangement of the general equilibrium, the general causes of which may be stated as follows: 1. The ascent of the air over certain tracts heated by the sun; 2. evaporation, causing an actual increase in the volume of the atmosphere; 3. rain, snow, &c., causing an actual decrease in its volume, by the destruction of the vapor. In the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (vol. 51st), there is a table of the different velocities and forces of winds, drawn from a considerable number of facts and experiments, which give the following results:

Velocity of the Wind.

Miles

per Hour.

Feet per Second.

2.93

.020

4.4

.044

5.87

.079

7.33

.123

14.67

492

22.

1.107

29.34.

1.968

36.67

3.075

Currents thus produced may be permanent and general, extending over a large portion of the globe; periodical, as in the Indian ocean, or variable and occasional, or, at least, uncertain, as the winds in temperate climates. General or permanent winds blow always nearly in the same direction, and are called trade-winds. (q. v.) On the north of the equator, their direction is from the north-east (varying at times a point or two of the compass each way): on the south of the equator, they proceed from the south-east. The origin of them is this: The powerful heat of the torrid zone rarefies, or makes 18

VOL. XIII.

lighter, the air of that region: the air, in consequence of this rarefaction, rises, and, to supply its place, a colder atmosphere from each of the temperate zones moves towards the equator. But (as in the case of the polar currents in the ocean) these north and south winds pass from regions where the rotatory motion of the earth's surface is less to those where it is greater. Unable at once to acquire this new veloci ty, they are left behind, and, instead of being north and south winds, as they would be if the earth's surface did not turn round, they become north-east and south-east winds. The space included

between the second and fifth degrees of north latitude is the internal boundary of the two winds; and this space experiences calms, frequently interrupted, however, by violent storms. The reason why it is situated to the north of, instead of exactly at, the equator, seems to be, that the northern hemisphere is warmer than the southern; for, since the trade-winds are the result of the continual ascent of heated air in the equatorial parts, their internal boundary will be where the printipal ascent is going on, that is, where the annual temperature is the highest, which, on account of the above-mentioned inequality of temperature in the two hemispheres, will not be at the equator, but somewhat to the north of it. The external limits of the trade-winds are, at a medium, in about the thirtieth degrees of north and south latitude respectively; but each limit, as the sun approaches the neighboring tropic, declines farther from the equator. The position of the sun has an influence, also, on their strength and direction; for, when that luminary is near the tropic of Cancer, the south-east wind becomes gradually more southerly, and stronger, and the north-east weaker, and more easterly. The effect is reversed when he gets towards the tropic of Capricorn. The trade-winds would blow regularly round the whole globe within the distance of about thirty or forty degrees from the equator each way, if the space within those limits were all covered with water; but the uneven surface and unequal temperature of the land divert and derange them. It is on this account that the trade-winds are constantly experienced only over the open ocean. The larger the expanse of ocean over which they range, the more steadily they blow; thus, in the Pacific, they are commonly more steady than in the Atlantic ocean, and in the South than in the North Atlantic. In sailing from the Canaries to Cumana, on the north coast of South America, it is hardly necessary to touch the sails of the vessel. The voyage across the Pacific, from Acapulco, on the west coast of Mexica, to the Philippine islands, is performed with equal facility; and, if there were a channel through the isthmus of Panama, a westward passage from the Atlantic to China would be more speedy and safe than the usual navigation thither round the cape of Good Hope. The only interruption to the evenness of this voyage would be in the Caribbean sea and the gulf of Mexico, where the trade-wind blows impetuously, and is sometimes interrupted

by westerly winds. It would not be pos sible, however, to return by the same route, because, in sailing east, way must be made to the northward, in order to get beyond the region of the trade into that of the variable winds. Both in the Atlantic and in the Pacific ocean, the current of the trade-winds becomes broader, and more directly east in its course, as it advances from one side to the other of those extensive basins. On the west coast of Africa, owing to the rarefaction which the air undergoes over that continent, the wind is mostly turned towards the shere: from cape Bojador to cape Verde, it is generally north-west, and thence to the island of St. Thomas, under the equator, it bends gradually, first to the west, and then to the south-west. Along the coasts of Chile and Peru, a south wind prevails. These are two instances of the interruption which the trade-winds experience in thể neighborhood of large masses of land. In the Indian ocean, the south-east tradewind prevails between 28° and 10° of south latitude, from within a few degrees of the east side of Madagascar, nearly to the coast of New Holland; but, from the tenth degree of south latitude to the northern shores of that ocean, the uniformity of the tropical movements of the atmosphere is destroyed by the monsoons (q. v.), which belong to the class of periodical winds. These blow half the year from one quarter, and the other half from the opposite direction. When they shift, variable winds and violent storms prevail for a time, which render it dangerous to put to sea. They, of course, suffer partial changes in particular places, owing to the form and position of the lands, and to other circumstances; but it will be sufficient to give their general limits and directions. Northward from the third degree of south latitude, a south-west wind blows from April to October; from October to April, a north-east. These monsoons extend over the China sea; but here they incline more to the direction of north and south. Between the third and tenth degrees of south latitude, a north-west wind blows from October to April, and a south-east during the other six months of the year: the former is seldom steady in the open sea; but, in December and January, it sometimes extends northward a degree or two beyond the equator. These two monsoons have_the_greatest strength and regularity in the Java sea. and thence eastward towards New Guinea The facts above exhibited may be thus sum med up: From April to October a south

west wind prevails north of the equator; southward of this, a south-east wind: from October to April, a north-east wind north of the equator, and a north-west between the equator and 10° of south latitude; south of this, the usual trade-wind, which is in motion through the whole year. In attempting to account for these movements of the atmosphere over the Indian ocean, the first thing which strikes us is, that the north-east and south-east monsoons, which are found the one on the north and the other on the south side of the equator, are nothing more than the trade-winds blowing for six months, and then succeeded, for the remainder of the year, by winds directly opposite. It is also to be noticed that the south-west monsoon in the northern, and the northwest monsoon in the southern, hemisphere, each prevails while the sun is perpendicular to their respective regions. They are, therefore, connected with the immediate presence of that luminary. If the Indian ocean were not bounded, as it is, by land on the north, the trade-winds would blow over it (at least in the central parts) as they do in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. But it is well known that water, owing to its transparency, is very little warmed by the sun's rays, whereas the land is powerfully heated by them; consequently, when the sun is between the equator and the tropic of Cancer, India, Siam, and the adjacent countries, become much hotter than the ocean; the air over them is rarefied, and ascends: colder air then rushes in from the Indian ocean, and a south-west wind is produced. When the sun, however, has crossed to the south of the equator, these countries become gradually cool, and the northeast trade-wind resumes its course. the same time, the north-west monsoon commences in the southern hemisphere, in consequence of the air over New Holland being rarefied by the presence of the sun. The monsoons in the Red sea blow in the direction of the shores; and a similar effect is observed in the Mozambique channel, between Africa and Madagascar, where these winds follow the line of the channel.. On the coast of Brazil, between cape St. Augustine and the island of St. Catharine, and in the bay of Panama, on the west of the isthmus of that name, periodical winds occur somewhat similar to the monsoons of Asia. The land and sea-breezes, which are common on coasts and islands situated between the tropics, are another kind of periodical winds. During the day, the air over the land is

At

It

strongly heated by the sun, and a cool breeze sets in from the sea; but, in the night, the atmosphere over the land is cooled, while the sea, and, consequently, the air over it, retains a temperature nearly even at all times; accordingly, after sunset, a land-breeze blows off the shore.. The sea-breeze generally sets in about ten in the forenoon, and lasts till six in the evening. At seven, the land-breeze begins, and continues till eight in the morning, when it dies away. These alternate breezes are, perhaps, felt inore powerfully on the coast of Malabar than elsewhere. Their effect there extends to a distance of twenty leagues from the land. During summer, the sea-breeze is very perceptible on the coasts of the Mediterranean, and sometimes even as far north as Norway. We thus perceive that, within the limits of from twenty-eight to thirty degrees on each side of the equator, the movements of the atmosphere are carried on with great regularity; but, beyond these limits, the winds are extremely variable and uncertain, and the observations made have not yet led to any satisfactory theory by which to explain them. appears, however, that, beyond the region of the trade-winds, the most frequent movements of the atmosphere are from the south-west in the north temperate zone, and from the north-west in the south temperate zone. This remark must be limited to winds blowing over the ocean, and in maritime countries; because those in the interior of continents are influenced by a variety of circumstances, among which the height and position of chains of mountains are not the least important. These south-west and northwest winds of the temperate zones are most probably occasioned in the following manner: In the torrid zone, there is a continual ascent of air, which, after rising, must spread itself to the north and south in an opposite direction to the tradewinds below. These upper currents, becoming cooled above, at last descend and mix themselves with the lower air: part of them may perhaps fall again into the trade-winds; and the remainder, pursuing its course towards the poles, occasion the north-west and south-west winds of which we have been speaking. It has also been conjectured that these winds may frequently be caused by a decomposition of the atmosphere towards the poles, from part of the air being at times converted into water. (See Hurricane, Whirlwinds, Harmattan, Simoom, &c } The following facts, illustrative of the