further. It was a singular circumstance, that Mr. Pitt, whose power was then at its zenith, could carry every measure but this. Mr. Wilberforce had much to contend with before he completed his object; and all he could do was to procure some regulations favorable to the slaves during their passage. The condition of the slaves in the West Indies was, however, greatly improved. While Mr. Pitt was minister, every trick was tried to avoid the question, till Mr. Fox and his friends succeeded to power, when, to their honor, he and his friends carried the measure. The influence of Mr. Wilberforce in the house of commons was extraordinary; and, at one time, during the French war, an appearance of defection on the part of Wilberforce and his friends induced Pitt to open a treaty with France. Mr. Wilberforce has published a Practical View of the prevailing Religious Systems of Professed Christians in the higher and middle Classes of the Country contrasted with real Christianity (1797); an Apology for the Christian Sabbath (1799); a Letter on the Abolition of the Slave-Trade (1807); and Substance of his Speeches on the Bill for promoting the Religious Instruction of the Natives of British India (1813).

WILD RICE (zizania aquatica); a large kind of grass, which grows in shallow water or miry situations, in many parts of North America. The stem is seven or eight feet high; the leaves broad and scattering; and the flowers disposed in a large terminal panicle, spreading at the base and spiked at the summit. The female flowers are awned, upright, and form the terminating spike, while the male are nodding, and placed at the extremities of the spreading branchlets; the stamens are six in number; the seeds are about half an inch long, slender, farinaceous, and afford a very good meal, which is much used by the Indians in those districts where the plant abounds. The seeds drop off with the slightest blow; and the Indians collect them by bending the plants, and beating them over their canoes. The wild rice grows in the Northern and Middle States and in Canada. It is extremely abundant along the muddy shores of the Delaware, and forms the chief attraction for the immense flocks of reed-birds and black-birds which annually resort thither in the autumn. Owing to the different features of the Chesapeake and Hudson, it is rare on their shores, and on most of their branches. It is most abundant in the north-west,

being found as far as latitude 50°, on lake Winnipeg; but it does not exist on the Missouri, or west of the St. Peters, a branch of the Upper Mississippi. This plant may, perhaps, at some future day, exert considerable influence on the destiny of the human race, and render populous many districts in the extreme north which are now considered uninhabitable. Another and larger species of zizania is found in the more southern parts of the United States, which is distinguished by having the male and female flowers intermixed.

Art

WILHELMSHŐHE (William's Height), formerly Weissenstein, and during the brief existence of the kingdom of Westphalia, called Napoleon's Höhe, is a castle belonging to the elector of Hesse-Cassel, a league distant from Cassel, the usual summer residence of the monarch. and nature have vied in adorning it. An alley of linden-trees leads from Cassel to the foot of the elevation on which the palace stands. The most remarkable objects in this place are, 1. The palace of the elector. 2. The great fountain, a column of water which may be made to rise 190 feet high. Its diameter is nine inches. 3. The great cascade. The water falls 104 feet, in a stream eighteen feet wide and one foot in thickness. 4. The Carlsberg (Charles mountain), with its cascades, erected, in 1701, by the Italian architect Giov. Franc. Guernieri. Here is a grotto, in front of which is a basin 220 feet in diameter. The water falls over the grotto into the basin, and thence in a triple cascade, 900 Rhenish feet long and 40 feet wide. At intervals of 150 feet are basins. On both sides of the cascade, 842 steps lead up to the palace, called, on account of its form, the octagon. At the foot of this building is a basin 150 feet in diameter, in which a rock, lying as if it had fallen from above, covers the body of the giant Enceladus. His mouth is seven feet wide, and sends forth a mass of water 55 feet high. In the back-ground of the basin is a grotto, on one side of which is a centaur, on the other a faun, both of which blow through copper horns as long as the water plays. There is also another basin, provided with a grotto and a statue of Polyphemus, which plays when the water flows. Before this grotto is the artichoke basin, owing its name to an enormous artichoke of stone, from the leaves of which twelve fountains spring, of which that in the centre rises forty feet. The giant castle (as the palace is called) is remarkable in various respects.

It has 192 Tuscan columns, each 48 feet high, which support the third story. On a platform extending over the whole building, stands a pyramid 96 feet high, at the summit of which, on a pedestal eleven feet high, stands the colossal statue of the Farnese Hercules, called, by the people of the neighborhood, the great Christopher. It is of copper, 31 feet high. In his club there is sufficient room for twelve men. There is a door in it, from which a splendid view is presented of the surrounding country. Among the other curiosities are a remarkable bridge, a romantic cascade, a Chinese village, &c. WILKEN, Frederic, doctor of theology, royal Prussian historiographer, first librarian and professor in the university of Berlin, &c., a distinguished historian, was born in 1771, in Ratzeburg. In 1795, he went to the university of Göttingen, where, at first, he studied theology, but soon devoted himself to history, philology, and the Oriental languages. In 1798, he received the prize of the philosophical faculty at Göttingen, for a critical work on the statements of sultan Abulfeda respecting the crusades, which he subsequently extended to a full history of these remarkable events. In 1805, he was made professor of history in the university of Heidelberg, and, in 1808, superintendent of the library. In 1815, when the various countries reclaimed from France the treasures which had been carried to Paris, professor Wilken conceived the bold idea of demanding the library of Heidelberg, seized, 200 years ago, by Bavaria, and presented to pope Urban VIII. (See Heidelberg, Library of.) The Prussian and Austrian ministers supported Wilken; and, as the Romans believed that Heidelberg belonged to Prussia, the pope gave up the library, actually making a present of it, however, to the king of Prussia. The famous sculptor Canova had come to Paris, as commissioner on the part of the pope, without any means of ascertaining precisely what he ought to reclaim; and Wilken aided him greatly by presenting him a catalogue of all the manuscripts and works of art carried from the Vatican to Paris, printed at Leipsic in 1805. Canova, in return, aided Wilken's demand by his own intercession with cardinal Consalvi. Thus 38 Greek, Latin and French, and 853 German manuscripts were given back to Heidelberg. Wilken went, in 1816, to Rome. In 1813, he was made a member of the French institute. Most of his writings relate to the Persian

language and the history of the East; but his chief work is the History of the Crusades, from Oriental and Western Sources (6 vols., Leipsic, 1807-1830). He has also written a history of the old Heidelberg library, &c. (1817).

WILKES, John, a political character of temporary celebrity, born in London, in 1727, was the second son of an opulent distiller. After a preliminary education, under a dissenting minister at Aylesbury, he was sent to finish his studies at the university of Leyden. He returned to England in 1749, with a considerable portion of classical and general knowledge, and soon after married a lady of large fortune. One daughter was the fruit of this union, which did not prevent him from living a licentious life; and he soon after finally separated from his wife. In 1757, he obtained a seat in parliament for the borough of Aylesbury, and involved his affairs by the expenses of the election. He went into parliament under the auspices of earl Temple, through whose interest he was also appointed lieutenant-colonel of the Bucks militia. His early career was by no means conspicuous; but on the secession of earl Temple and Mr. Pitt from. the ministry, in 1762, he attained considerable reputation by some pamphlets attacking the administration, and more especially the earl of Bute. He extended. his hostility not only to that nobleman, but to his country, and, by his paper entitled the North Briton, rendered antipathy to Scotland prevalent in England. These papers hastened the resignation of lord Bute, which took place in April, 1763.. In the same month appeared the famous No. 45 of the North Briton, which commented on the king's speech in such caustic terms, that a prosecution was determined upon. The home secretary, in consequence, issued a general warrant, or one in which particular names are not specified, ordering the apprehension of the authors, printers and publishers of the paper in question. On this warrant Wilkes, among others, was apprehended; but he asserted the illegality of the warrant, and, refusing to answer interrogatories, was committed to the Tower. Some days after, he was brought, by writ of habeas corpus, before chief justice Pratt, of the common pleas, who declared the judgment of that court that general wairants were illegal, and he was consequently discharged, amidst the general rejoicings of the populace. Aided by lord Temple, he brought actions against the secretary of state, under secretaries,

messengers, and every person employed in the transaction, in which the prose cutors obtained damages, which were paid by the crown. Not content with this escape, he reprinted the obnoxious North Briton, which produced a regular prosecution to conviction; and, in the mean time, having fought a duel with a Mr. Martin, in which he was dangerously wounded, he withdrew to France. The result of his non-appearance to meet the prosecution was expulsion from the house of commons. A second charge was also brought against him for printing an obscene poem, entitled an Essay on Women, and he was found guilty of blasphemy as well as libel, added to which, his continued absence produced outlawry, and thus the ministerial triumph was complete. He in vain made attempts to procure the reversal of his outlawry; but, trusting to his popularity, he ventured to return, on a change of ministry, and to deliver himself into custody. Notwithstanding his imprisonment, he was elected to represent the county of Middlesex, by a vast majority; and, soon after, his outlawry was discussed at various hearings, and solemnly reversed; but this did not procure his liberty; and he was condemned to an imprisonment of twenty-two months, and a fine of £1000. In 1769, in consequence of a pamphlet written by him, in censure of a letter from the secretary of state to a magistrate, advising the employment of the military in repression of the riots which were the result of Mr. Wilkes's confinement, he was again expelled the house. This measure being followed by his immediate reëlection, he was declared incapable of becoming a member of the existing parliament, and colonel Luttrell set up against him, who was declared the sitting member for Middlesex at the next election, although the votes for him did not amount to a fourth part of those for Wilkes-a decision which produced a great sensation, and excited disgust even among those who disliked the person thus opposed. In return for the loss of his seat, he was elected alderman of the ward of Farringdon Without, and in this magistracy displayed his usual spirit against illegal authority. The house of commons having summoned some printers in the city before them, for publishing their speeches, they neglected to attend, when a royal proclamation was obtained for apprehending them; and when, on its authority, one of the printers was carried before alderman Wilkes, he, who aremed the apprehension a breach

of the privileges of the city, discharge? the printer, and ordered the captor to give bail. The lord-mayor Oliver, and alderman Crosby, acted in the same way in regard to two other printers, for which, being members of the house of commons, they were committed to the Tower, while Wilkes, being summoned to the bar of the house of commons, instead of obeying, wrote to the speaker and claimed his seat. The house was now sensible of the difficulty in which it had involved itself, and found no better expedient to save its credit than an adjournment beyond the day on which he was ordered to attend. In 1772, he was chosen sheriff, and, in 1774, elected mayor; and he knew so well both how to acquire and to retain popularity, that, on the dissolution of parliament, in the same year, he was once more chosen member for Middlesex. In parliament he was a strenuous opposer of the measures which led to the American war, but did not render himself very conspicuous as a speaker. In 1779, he was chosen, by a great majority, chamberlain of London, which lucrative office, so necessary to his broken fortune, he held for the remainder of his life. In 1782, upon the dismissal of the North administration, the obnoxious resolutions against him were, on his own motion, expunged from the journals of the house; from which time, although, in 1784, once more reëlected member for Middlesex, he deemed himself "a fire burnt out." He died December 26, 1797, aged seventy; for some years previously to which event. he was comparatively forgotten. Wilkes, as a writer and speaker, did not reach beyond mediocrity. His private character was very licentious, but he possessed elegant manners, fine taste, ready wit, and pleasing conversation. His Letters and Speeches were published by himself in 1787; and much light is thrown upon his conduct by the Letters from the Year 1774 to the Year 1796, to his Daughter (1804, 4 vols., 12mo.). His correspondence, in 5 vols., was also published, with a Memoir by Almon, in 1805 (5 vols.).

WILKIE, William, a Scottish poet, was born in the county of West Lothian. His father, a small farmer, contrived to give him a liberal education, and, at the age of thirteen, he was sent to the university of Edinburgh. Before he completed his academical course, the death of his father obliged him to pay attention to the farm, which was the only inheritance of himself and three sisters. He still, however prosecuted his studies, and was admitted

to which he who makes the will belongs, the person who claims the assistance of the society, has, in fact, ceased to belong to it, and all mutual obligations between him and the society have been dissolved by his death. It cannot be denied that there is something unphilosophical in the idea that a being, no longer a member of a society, shall nevertheless influence it by his previous will. But, on the other hand, the reasons in support of the right of making wills are so numerous, that it is sanctioned by the laws of all civilized nations, and even receives additional security with the progress of civilization. Our limits do not permit us to go into the discussion of these reasons. We will only remark that it is generally admitted that the disposition to acquire property, and the secure possession of it when acquired, are the foundation and safeguards of civilization; and this disposition to acquire, and the feeling of complete ownership, are greatly promoted by the liberty to dispose freely of acquired property, even after death. The idea of a will does not exist among nations in their earliest stages. They admit the right of making testaments with reluctance, and under great restrictions, and render the execution of the right difficult, by surrounding it with formalities, which indicate that such a disposition takes place only with the consent of the society, and is valid only under its authority. In Rome, this right was extended, by the twelve tables, to every father of a family (pater familias uti legassit super pecunia tutelave rei suæ, ita jus esto); but the earliest form of making wills was to declare one's own will in the assemblies of the people (calatis comitiis), or in the presence of the soldiers, who were collected for a military expedition (in procinctu). Among the ancient Germans, the right of disposing by will was granted only to free persons sufficiently vigorous to appear "without support, without a staff" (ungehabt und ungestabt), and the right could be exercised only in the assembly of the people. Restrictions additional to those which proceed from a general incapacity to perform a valid act, have always attended the right of making a will: thus, in Rome, foreigners were not allowed to bequeath their property (this restriction was preserved in the droit d'aubaine (q. v.) in France until the revolution): in Germany, none but free persons had this right, and even they could not dispose of inherited estates. Such limitations have been gradually abolished in modern times: still, however, in favor

of children, parents, grand-parents, &c., many are yet continued in various parts of Europe; for instance, testators are hot allowed to bequeath the whole of their property away from their natural heirs. Persons of full age, sound mind, reputable deportment, and capable of making known their intentions, are generally allowed to make a will. Of course, the testator cannot dispose of any thing of which he has not the full property, such as fiefs, entailed estates, &c. In the Roman law, the doctrine of wills and testaments was intimately connected with the earliest foundations of their national law, with their religion by the sacra privata, with the ancient rights of their gentes, with their views of the complete property of a citizen (dominium ex jure Quiritium) and of mere possession (quod in bonis est), with their system of slavery, and their public law. Hence this doctrine is so interwoven with their whole law, and is marked by so many peculiarities; for instance, that a testament must always embrace the whole property left (nemo pro parte testatus, pro parte intestatus decedere potest), which has been abolished in the modern codes (Prussian Code i, xii, 256; Austrian Civil Code i, 556). The Roman law has, notwithstanding all these peculiarities, become general in modern Europe, and has found its way even to England (as testaments there come within the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts), where it still exists with some modifications. We shall speak below of the laws respecting wills in England and the U. States. In Germany, too, the Roman law is yet the law of the land, wherever it has not been expressly changed, and there it has retained the most of its peculiarities. In Germany, however, all foreigners are capable of bequeathing and inheriting, by a law made as early as the time of the emperor Frederic II. (See Aubaine, Droit d'.) This is not the place to treat a subject so extensive in all its details. We can only give the most important features. The form of testaments required by the Roman law still bears the stamp of its origin. The funda mental idea is that of a solemn and public transfer of the whole property, by which another person enters inte all the transferable rights and obligations of the testator. This was to be done before seven witnesses, expressly summoned (Roman male citizens, against whom there was no legal objection), and the whole ceremony was to be performed without interruption Five of these were proper witnesses: the sixth (libripens) originally carried a bal