States.

THIS year decided the destinies of the New World. The long and terrible contest which Spain had maintained, to preserve her dominion over her vast Transatlantic empire, was, at every point, brought to a close. No events could affect more deeply the interests of the European states, and the destinies of the species; yet, amid the crowding concerns and vicissitudes of the Old World, these great distant revolutions attracted comparatively little attention. The character of the actors, the particulars of the events, and all the hinges on which the political system moved, have been transmitted to us in so little detail, that we can do little more at present than state the general results.

The Mexican insurgents had for some years disappeared from the scene; they no longer threatened the capital or the central seats of trade; they were supposed in Europe to be confined to a few guerilla bands, traversing the remoter districts. The fact, however,

was, that civil war had been raging, without intermission, in all the provinces; that the independents, though they could not carry any of the capitals, had been in uninterrupted possession of extensive districts; while, by perpetual conflicts, maintained with various fortune against the royalists, they had been acquiring those qualities which would at length enable them to cope with regular troops. Their strength was now so far extended and matured, that it required only to be collected and regularly pointed, to be an overmatch for the reduced strength of the party in power. That strength, worn down by successive conflicts, was recruited by only a very small portion even of those slender re inforcements which Spain was still able to send, but which were directed towards quarters in which the resist ance wore a more active and alarming aspect.

That rallying point, which the independent cause wanted, was supplied

by a very unexpected circumstance. The revolutions of the peninsula and of Italy, had suggested to all armies the idea of becoming the champions of liberty. This impression, blended, perhaps, with hopes of personal aggrandizement, worked on the mind of Don Augustin Iturbide, a native of Mexico, and commanding a regiment almost entirely composed of Creoles. About the beginning of January, he and this regiment suddenly disappeared, and were soon after announced as having joined the insurrectionary bands in the province of Mexico. Another colonel, of the name of Cavaleri, followed his example, and, on the 24th February, they published the basis of a new political arrangement for the Mexican empire. The terms were, that New Spain should be independent of the old, under a limited and constitutional monarchy; that the King, Don Ferdinand VII., should be Emperor of Mexico, provided he should choose to come and reside there; if not, the crown should be conferred upon any one of the princes of his family, who might comply with this condition. An army was to be formed, called the Army of the Three Guarantees, which were of the Catholic religion, of the independence of Mexico, and of the union between Americans and Europeans.

After this declaration, all the independent forces ranged themselves, with out hesitation, under Iturbide, who found himself soon at the head of 20,000 or 25,000 men. The governor Apodaca lost no time in sending against him all the disposable troops, composing still a force with which Iturbide did not venture to cope in the field; but, operating on a vast extent of territory, he carried on with such advantage a desultory and skirmishing warfare, that the royalists were soon obliged to give up the open country, and shut themselves up in the fortified towns.

An unfortunate ruler must usually

bear the blame of all the disasters which befal under his sway. The high par. tizans of Spain ascribed to the weakness of Apodaca the distressed state of their affairs. They were thus impelled into measures very inconsistent with those high principles of authority and subordination which it was their pride to support. An association of the principal officers was formed, in which it was determined to divest Apodaca of all his functions, and send him back to Spain, nominating in his room Don Francis Novella, whom they highly esteemed for his popular talents, and attachment to the mother country. So unanimous was this resolution, and so well concerted the plan, that Apodaca found himself in no condition to resist, and was obliged to publish a declaration, in which he professed him. self content with the safety of his person and family, and with having the means provided for him of returning to Spain; and that he left all power in the hands of Signor Novella. Novella then gave out a proclamation, in which he expressed the satisfaction he felt on account of the confidence reposed in him; exhorted all classes to combine for the maintenance of the good cause, and concluded," Brave veterans, faithful citizens, whose loyalty has been proved by eleven years of constancy and hardship, defenders of the integrity of the Spains, display that glorious union which is the precursor of victory! Ah, how much does your companion in arms long to see you crowned with laurels !"

This revolution was the less to be justified, that a new viceroy, Don Juan O'Donoju, was daily expected; and, in fact, before the installation of Novella, he had landed at Vera Cruz. He found that place closely blockaded by the independent force, under St Ana, which had even more than once penetrated into the city; and, though it had been hitherto repulsed by the

brave exertions of General Davilla, yet the whole country, between the sea-port and Mexico, was in the hands of the enemy, and the communications cut off. Even if he could penetrate to Mexico, he had no means or certainty of enforcing his authority against Novella, whom his fellow officers had chosen in a manner which they were not likely easily to retract. Under these considerations, O'Donoju formed the resolution, certainly very contrary to the purpose of his mission, to treat with Iturbide; and this step he endeavoured, though, as might have been foreseen, without success, to justify to the government at home. He alleged the hopelessness of a successful issue, and the calamities in which it involved thousands of opulent families in both continents. In pursuance of this resolution, he repaired to Cordova, where an agreement was formed, which was less a treaty than an unqualified acquiescence in all the views of Iturbide. The basis was similar to that of the project already formed on the 24th February, establishing Mexico as independent, and to be governed by a member of the royal family of Spain, only on condition of residence. A junto, composed of the chief persons in the empire, was to be formed, and to take immediate steps for assembling the Cortes. At the same time, it was to name a regency of three persons, in whose hands the executive government was to be placed, till it should be seen how the Spanish princes would receive the offer made to them. O'Donoju agreed to use his authority with the troops then in Mexico, to induce them to quit it on an honourable capitulation. For himself, though he retained the title of Viceroy, no stipulation appears to have been made in his favour, except that he should be a member of the junto, while Iturbide retained the office of commander-in

chief, and the real direction of all affairs.

This agreement being concluded, it was announced to Novella, who was called upon in consequence to lay down his usurped authority, and to open the gates of the capital. Novella held this demand greatly at nought, and denounced O'Donoju as the real traitor to his country. Iturbide, who expected nothing else, was already in march to carry the treaty into effect by force of arms. A check, however, which he experienced in the neighbourhood of Mexico, taught him the necessity of adhering to his former system of harassing and desultory warfare. The details are not known; but the result was, that Novella, finding himself nearly blocked up in Mexico, with all the inhabitants of the country, and the majority even of those in the capital, hostile to him, judged it necessary to give up the cause. On the 27th September, he entered into a capitulation, by which he merely stipulated the safe embarkation of himself and his troops.

On the 27th September, the "Army of the Three Guarantees" made its triumphal entry into the capital of Mexico. A complete apparent unanimity marked this great crisis in the history of the western hemisphere. As the successive divisions, upwards of 15,000 strong, passed through the streets of the celebrated capital, they were hailed by the universal acclamatiens of the multitude. The event was celebrated by a grand festival, and by all those religious ceremonies which the Catholic religion appropriates to rejoicing. Iturbide issued a proclamation, in which he congratulated the Mexicans on the peaceful manner in which so great a revolution had been effected, exhorted them to strict union, and promised the speedy convocation of the Cortes, and the formation of a

code of laws, which should secure the national liberty. He concluded with a declaration, probably very little sincere :-"All I ask is, that you respect the laws; that you allow me to return to the bosom of my beloved family, and that you sometimes recollect your friend."

On the 8th October, only ten days after this revolution, O'Donoju died. This event, occurring at so critical a moment, could not, it was supposed, be imputed to mere natural causes. Some ascribed it to poison, administered by Iturbide, in order to rid himself of a dangerous competitor; while others supposed that O'Donoju himself, repenting the course he had taken, and mortified at the little consideration with which he was treated, fell a victim to his chagrin.

Iturbide, thus freed from rivalry, disposed all things at his pleasure. His partizans even held out the idea of proclaiming him Emperor; and for this there appeared more room, when there was received from Spain an entire rejection of the arrangement of the Three Guarantees. Nothing, however, could be done, with any shew of legality, till the assemblage of the Cortes, which, at the close of the present year, the Mexican people were busied in electing. Iturbide, meanwhile, lost no time in taking measures to revive industry and commerce, which had suffered deeply under the continuance of internal commotion. His most important measure, and one highly useful, was, to allow the free import and export of all goods, with very few exceptions, among which bullion (that jealous object of Spanish restriction) was not included.

In PERU, the other grand branch of the Hispano-American empire, the power of the mother country was, even at the commencement of the year, in a tottering condition. The two parties were in presence, without either being

in haste to commit itself against the other ;-on the one side, San Martin, with the Chilian army, and the fleet under Lord Cochrane; on the other, Pezuela, the viceroy, with a superior military force, but with the disadvantage of acting in a country, of which the inhabitants were generally hostile to him. The Spanish officers, not duly allowing for this circumstance, imputed it to Pezuela's want of energy, that he had not before triumphed over the inferior forces of the enemy. By a conspiracy similar to that, which some months afterwards took place at Mexico, they compelled the Viceroy to abdicate, and placed in his room La Serna, a general who enjoyed their full confidence. La Serna's first movement was, to send a detachment, under General Ricaforte, to attack the body of troops stationed at Pesio under Arnales. San Martin, however, had time to reinforce them with three battalions before the enemy came up. At Pisco a battle took place, which was maintained on both sides with the greatest obstinacy, but it terminated in the total rout and destruction of the division of Ricaforte. He himself was wounded, and his whole force either killed or taken, with the exception of a very few detached cavalry, who made their escape to Lima. At that capital, the dismay of the one party, and the exulting hopes of the other, knew then no bounds. San Martin did not allow his foes to breathe, but marched direct upon Lima, scattering proclamations, addressed to every class of the inhabitants, even the women. La Serna, in these circumstances, judged it no longer possible to attempt maintaining himself at Lima; but, on the 6th July, evacuated that city, and marched to take up a position in the mountain tracts of Upper Peru. He left a garrison, however, in Callao, the post which was capable of standing a siege.

On the 10th July, San Martin, with the liberating army, entered Lima, and was hailed by the sincere acclamations of the majority of the inhabitants. He assumed the title of Protector of Peru, abolished all distinctions of country and colour, and declared free all who should be born thenceforth in the empire, of whatever parents. At the same time, he nominated a junto, under whose auspices the Act of Inde pendence was drawn up, and signed by the principal inhabitants, at the head of whom was the venerable Archbishop of Lima.

La Serna, meantime, being joined by another division, under Canterac, conceived himself in a condition to attempt offensive operations. Canterac, being dispatched with a large force, threw succours into Callao, and mena. ced Lima, which was filled with alarm. A difference of opinion now arose between Lord Cochrane and San Martin: the former, always bold and enterprizing, urged an immediate attack upon the royalist general, while San Martin conceived that this would be putting affairs to unnecessary hazard, and that want of provisions would soon oblige Callao to surrender. It surrendered, in fact, on the 22d September, the garrison being allowed to march out with their arms and effects. The capitulation, however, being concluded without any concert with the admiral, proved a new source of discord. Lord Cochrane also complained that his crews had obtained no share of that booty, in hope of which they had crossed so many seas, and endured such hardships. Seeing no prospect of obtaining redress from the "Protector of Peru," he distributed among his sailors part of 600,000 dollars which he held from the government of Chili, and sent back the rest; he then set sail in search of some Spanish ships of war which were understood to be cruizing in those seas.

San Martin, thus freed from the presence of a troublesome rival, now arranged everything according to his own views. He formed a marine, the command of which he gave to Captain Guise, a personal enemy of Cochrane. On the 8th October, he issued, from his protectoriál palace, a "Provisional Statute for the Administration of the Free Departments of Peru." This statute consisted in centring in himself, without control, all the powers of administration. He commanded the forces by sea and land, could increase or diminish the military and naval force, impose taxes, contract loans, conclude treaties, make peace or war. This constitution was said to “emanate from the empire of necessity, and the exigence of the public interest." It was to continue till independence should be declared through the whole extent of Peru, when a Congress was to be called to establish a form of government which might appear best suited to the welfare of the state.

We left COLUMBIA in such a state, that only one finishing stroke was wanting, to put the seal to its independence. That finishing stroke was given in the battle of Calabosa. Bolivar, having refreshed and recruited his army, advanced such demands, as induced La Torre the Spanish general, on the 10th April, to declare the truce at an end. By the 23d June, Bolivar had united his three divisions in the plains of Tinaquillo, while La Torre held his army in a position almost innaccessible, and strengthened by artillery, near Calabosa. The forces which were to decide the destiny of this great country were about 6000 on each side. The daring Paez succeeded in guiding his division through a

narrow ravine to the left, which brought him upon the right flank of the enemy. This division consisted only of two battalions of Spanish foot,