ATRIUM. more resembling the ink now used by printers. An inkstand was discovered at Herculaneum, containing ink as thick as oil, and still usable for writing. The following cut represents inkstands found at Pompeii. I W 优 Inkstands. The ancients used inks of various colours. Red ink, made of minium or vermilion, was used for writing the titles and beginning of books. So also was ink made of rubrica, "red ochre ;" and because the headings of laws were written with rubrica, the word rubric came to be used for the civil law. So album, a white or whited table, on which the praetors' edicts were written, was used in a similar way. A person devoting himself to album and rubrica, was a person devoting himself to the law. [ALBUM] ATRIUM (called avλń by the Greeks and by Virgil, and also μεσαύλιον, περίστυλον, περίστῳον), is used in a distinctive as well as collective sense, to designate a particular part in the private houses of the Romans [DOMUS], and also a class of public buildings, so called from their general resemblance in construction to the atrium of a private house. An atrium of the latter description was a building by itself, resembling in some respects the open basilica [BASILICA], but consisting of three sides. Such was the Atrium Publicum in the capitol, which, Livy informs us, was struck with lightning, B. c. 216. It was at other times attached to some temple or other edifice, and in such case consisted of an open area and surrounding portico in front of the structure. Several of these buildings are mentioned by the ancient historians, two of which were dedicated to the same goddess, Libertas. The most celebrated, as well as the most ancient, was situated on the Aventine Mount. In this atrium there was a tabularium, where the legal tablets (tabulae) relating to the censors were preserved. The other Atrium Lib ertatis was in the neighbourhood of the Forum Caesaris, and was immediately behind the Basilica Paulli or Aemilia. AUCTIO signifies generally "an increasing, an enhancement," and hence the name is applied to a public sale of goods, at which persons bid against one another. The sale was sometimes conducted by an argentarius or by a magister auctionis; and the time, place, and conditions of sale, were announced either by a public notice (tabula, album, &c.), or by a crier (praeco). The usual phrases to express the giving notice of a sale were, auctionem proscribere, praedicare; and to determine on a sale, auctionem constituere. The purchasers (emtores), when assembled, were sometimes said ad tabulam adesse. The phrases signifying to bid are, liceri, licitari, which was done either by word of mouth, or by such significant hints as are known to all people who have attended an auction. The property was said to be knocked down (addici) to the purchaser. The praeco, or crier, seems to have acted the part of the modern auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings, and amusing the company. Slaves, when sold by auction, were placed on a stone, or other elevated thing; and hence the phrase homo de lapide emtus. It was usual to put up a spear (hasta) in auctions; a symbol derived, it is said, from the ancient practice of selling under a spear the booty acquired in war. AUCTION (sale). [AUCTIO.] AUCTOR, a word which contains the same element as aug-eo, and signifies generally one who enlarges, confirms, or gives to a thing its completeness and efficient form. The numerous technical significations of the word are derivable from this general notion. As he who gives to a thing that which is necessary for its completeness may in this sense be viewed as the chief actor or doer, the word auctor is also used in the sense of one who originates or proposes a thing; but this cannot be viewed as its primary meaning. Accordingly, the word auctor, when used in connection with lex or senatus consultum, often means him who originates and proposes. When a measure was approved by the senate before it was confirmed by the votes of the people, the senate were said auctores fieri, and this preliminary approval was called senatus auctoritas. When the word auctor is applied to him who recommends but does not originate a legislative measure, it is equivalent to suasor. Sometimes both auctor and suasor are used in the same sentence, and the meaning of each is kept distinct. With reference to dealings between individuals, auctor has the sense of owner. In this sense auctor is the seller (venditor), as opposed to the buyer (emtor); and hence we have the phrase a malo auctore emere. Auctor is also used generally to express any person under whose authority any legal act is done. In this sense it means a tutor who is appointed to aid or advise a woman on account of the infirmity of her sex. AUCTORAMENTUM, the pay of gladiators. [GLADIATORES.] AUCTORITAS. The technical meanings of this word correlate with those of auctor. The auctoritas senatus was not a senatusconsultum; it was a measure, incomplete in itself, which received its completion by some other authority. Auctoritas, as applied to property, is equivalent to legal ownership, being a correlation of auctor. AUGURES (oiwvonóho), priests, who formed a college or corporation at Rome. The institution of augurs is lost in the origin of the Roman state. According to that view of the constitution which makes it come entire from the hands of the first king, a college of three was appointed by Romulus, answering to the number of the three early tribes. Numa was said to have added two; yet at the passing of the Ogulnian law (B. c. 300) the augurs were but four in number: whether, as Livy supposes, the deficiency was accidental, is uncertain. By the law just mentioned, their number became nine, five of whom were chosen from the plebs. The dictator Sulla further increased them to fifteen, a multiple of their original number, which probably had a reference to the early tribes. This number continued until the time of Augustus, who, among other extraordinary powers, had the right conferred on him, in B. C. 29, of electing augurs at his pleasure, whether there was a vacancy or not, so that from this time the number of the college was unlimited. The augurs, like the other priests, were originally elected by the comitia curiata, or assembly of the patricians in their curiae. As no election was complete without the sanction of augury, the college virtually possessed a veto on the election of all its members. They very soon obtained the privilege of self-election (jus cooptationis), which, with one interruption, viz. at the election of the first plebeian augurs, they retained until B. C. 104, the year of the Domitian law. By this law it was enacted that vacancies in the priestly colleges should be filled up by the votes of a minority of the tribes, i. e. seventeen out of thirty-five, chosen by lot. The Domitian law was repealed by Sulla, but again restored, B. c. 63, during the consulship of Cicero, by the tribune, T. Annius Labienus, with the support of Caesar. It was a second time abrogated by Antony; whether again restored by Hirtius and Pansa, in their general annulment of the acts of Antony, seems uncertain. The emperors, as mentioned above, possessed the right of electing augurs at pleasure. The augurship is described by Cicero, himself an augur, as the highest dignity in the state, having an authority which could prevent the comitia from voting, or annul resolutions already passed, if the auspices had not been duly performed. The words alio die, from a single augur, might put a stop to all business, and a decree of the college had several times rescinded laws. The augurs were elected for life, and, even if capitally convicted, never lost their sacred character. When a vacancy occurred, the candidate was nominated by two of the elder members of the college; the electors were sworn, and the new member took an oath of secresy before his inauguration. The only distinction among them was one of age, the eldest augur being styled magister collegii. Among other privileges, they enjoyed that of wearing the purple praetexta, or, according to some, the trabea. Ôn ancient coins they are represented wearing a long robe,which veiled the head and reached down to the feet, thrown back over the left shoulder. They hold in the right hand a lituus, or curved wand, hooked at the end like a crosier, and sometimes have the capis, or earthen water-vessel by their side. The chief duties of the augurs were to observe and report supernatural signs. They were also the repositaries of the ceremonial law, and had to advise on the expiation of prodigies, and other matters of religious observance. Other duties of the augurs were to assist magistrates and generals in taking the auspices. At the passing of a lex curiata, three were required to be present, a number probably designed to represent the three ancient tribes. One of the difficulties connected with this subject is to distinguish between the religious duties of the augurs and of the higher magistrates. Under the latter were included consul, praetor, and censor. A single magistrate had the power of proroguing the comitia by the formula se de coelo servare. [AUSPICIUM.] The law obliged him to give notice beforehand, so that it can only have been a religious way of exercising a constitutional right. The spectio, as it was termed, was a voluntary duty AUREUS. on the part of the magistrate, and no actual observation was required. On the other hand, the augurs were employed by virtue of their office; they declared the auspices, from immediate observation, without giving any previous notice; they had the right of nuntiatio, not of spectio, at least in the comitia; in other words, they were to report prodigies, where they did, not to invent them, where they did not, exist. Augury was one of the many safeguards which the oligarchy opposed to the freedom of the plebs: of the three comitia-curiata, centuriata, and tributa-the two former were subject to the auspices. As the favourable signs were known to the augurs alone, their scruples were a pretext for the government to put off an inconvenient assembly. Yet in early times the augurs were not the mere tools of the government, and their independence under the kings seems to be testified by the story of Attus Naevius. During many centuries their power was supported by the voice of public opinion. Livy tells us that the first military tribunes abdicated in consequence of a decree of the augurs; and on another occasion the college boldly declared the plebeian dictator, M. Claudius Marcellus, to be irregularly created. During the civil wars the augurs were employed by both parties as political tools. Cicero laments the neglect and decline of the art in his day. The college of augurs was finally abolished by the emperor Theodosius. AUGURALE, the place where the auspices were taken. [AUSPICIUM.] AUGURIUM, divination by the flight and voice of birds. [AUSPICIUM.] AUGUSTA LES (sc. ludi, also called Augustalia), games celebrated in honour of Augustus, at Rome and in other parts of the Roman em-pire. They were exhibited annually at Rome in the circus, at first by the tribunes of the plebs, but afterwards by the praetor peregrinus. AUGUSTA LES, an order of priests in the municipia, who were appointed by Augustus, and selected from the libertini, whose duty it was to attend to the religious rites connected with the worship of the Lares and Penates, which Augustus put in places where two or more ways met. These Augustales should be distinguished from the sodales Augustales, who were an order of priests instituted by Tiberius to attend to the worship of Augustus, and were chosen by lot from among the principal persons of Rome. AULAEUM. [SIPARIUM.] AURUM CORONARIUM. AURI GA. [CIRCUS.] 45 AURUM (xpvoós), gold. Gold appears not to have been coined at Athens till the time of the Macedonian empire, with the exception of a solitary issue of a debased coinage in B. C. 407. But from a very early period the Asiatic nations, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, possessed a gold coinage, which was more or less current in Greece. Herodotus says that the Lydians were the first who coined gold; and the stater of Croesus appears to have been the earliest gold coin known to the Greeks. The daric was a Persian coin. Staters of Cyzicus and Phocaea had a considerable currency in Greece. There was a gold coinage in Samos as early as the time of Polycrates. [DARICUS; STATER.] The standard gold coin of Rome was the aureus nummus, or denarius aureus, which, according to Pliny, was first coined sixty-two years after the first silver coinage [ARGENTUM], that is, in B. c. 207. The lowest denomination was the scrupulum, which was made equal to twenty sestertii. The value of the aureus is 11. 1s. 1d. and a little more than a halfpenny. This is its value according to the present worth of gold; but its.current value in Rome was different from this, since the relative value of gold and silver was different in ancient times from what it is at present. The aureus passed for twenty-five denarii; therefore, the denarius being 8d., the aureus was worth 17s. 8d. The following cut represents an aureus of Augustus in the British Museum, which weighs 121 grains. Alexander Severus coined pieces of onehalf and one-third of the aureus, called semissis and tremissis; after which time the aureus was called solidus. AURUM CORONA'RIUM. When a general in a Roman province had obtained a victory, it was the custom for the cities in his own provinces, and for those from the neighbouring states, to send golden crowns to him, which were carried before him in his triumph at Rome. In the time of Cicero it appears to have been usual for the cities of the provinces, instead of sending crowns on occasion 46 AUSPICIUM. AUTHEPSA. of a victory, to pay money, which was called | heavens. Next he declared in a solemn form aurum coronarium. This offering, which was of words the limits assigned, making shrubs at first voluntary, came to be regarded as a or trees, called tesqua, his boundary on earth regular tribute, and was sometimes exacted correspondent to that in the sky. The temby the governors of the provinces, even when plum augurale, which appears to have included no victory had been gained. both, was divided into four parts: those to the east and west were termed sinistrae and dextrae; to the north and south, anticae and posticae. If a breath of air disturbed the calmness of the heavens, the auspices could not be taken; and according to Plutarch it was for this reason the augurs carried lanterns open to the wind. After sacrificing, the augur offered a prayer for the desired signs to appear, repeating after an inferior minister a set form; unless the first appearances were confirmed by subsequent ones, they were insufficient. If, in returning home, the augur came to a running stream, he again repeated a prayer, and purified himself in its waters; otherwise the auspices were held to be null. AUSPICIUM, originally meant a sign from birds. The word is derived from avis, and the root spec. As the Roman religion was gradually extended by additions from Greece and Etruria, the meaning of the word was widened, so as to include any supernatural sign. The chief difference between auspicium and augurium seems to have been that the latter term is never applied to the spectio of the magistrate. [AUGUR.] Birds were divided into two classes-oscines and praepetes; the former gave omens by singing, the latter by their flight and the motion of their wings. Every motion of every bird had a different meaning, according to the different circumstances or times of the year when it was observed. Another division of birds was into dextrae and sinistrae, about the meaning of which some difficulty has arisen from a confusion of Greek and Roman notions in the writings of the classics. The Greeks and Romans were generally agreed that auspicious signs came from the east, but as the Greek priest turned his face to the north the east was on his right hand, the Roman augur with his face to the south had the east to his left. The confusion was farther increased by the euphemisms common to both nations; and the rule itself was not universal at least with the Romans; the jay when it appeared on the left, the crow on the right being thought to give sure omens. The auspices were taken before a marriage, before entering on an expedition, before the passing of laws, or election of magistrates, or any other important occasion, whether public or private. In early times such was the importance attached to them that a soldier was released from the military oath, if the auspices had not been duly performed. The commander-in-chief of an army received the auspices, together with the imperium, and a war was therefore said to be carried on ductu et auspicio imperatoris, even if he were absent from the army, and thus, if the legatus gained a victory in the absence of his commander, the latter, and not his deputy, was honoured by a triumph. The ordinary manner of taking the auspices was as follows:-The augur went out before the dawn of day, and sitting in an open place, with his head veiled, marked out with a wand (lituus) the divisions of the Another method of taking the auspices, more usual in military expeditions, was from the feeding of birds confined in a cage, and committed to the care of the pullarius. An ancient decree of the college of augurs allowed the auspices to be taken from any bird. When all around seemed favourable, either at dawn or in the evening, the pullarius opened the cage and threw to the chickens pulse, or a kind of soft cake. If they refused to come out, or to eat, or uttered a cry (occinerunt), or beat their wings, or flew away, the signs were considered unfavourable, and the engagement was delayed. On the contrary, if they ate greedily, so that something fell and struck the earth (tripudium solistimum; tripudium quasi terripavium, solistimum, from solum, the latter part of the word probably from the root stimulo), it was held a favourable sign. The place where the auspices were taken, called auguraculum, augurale, or auguratorium, was open to the heavens. One of the most ancient of these was on the Palatine hill, the regular station for the observation of augurs. Sometimes the auspices were taken in the capitol. In the camp a place was set apart to the right of the general's tent. The lex Aelia and Fufia provided that no assemblies of the people should be held, nisi prius de coelo servatum esset. It appears to have confirmed to the magistrates the power of obnunciatio, or of interposing a veto. [AUGUR.] AUTHEPSA (avléns), which literally means "self-boiling," or "self cooking," was the name of a vessel which is supposed to have been used for heating water, or for keep ing it hot. BALNEUM. AUTONOMI (avтovóμoi), the name given by the Greeks to those states which were governed by their own laws, and were not subject to any foreign power. This name was also given to those cities subject to the Romans, which were permitted to enjoy their own laws and elect their own magistrates. AUXILIA. [SOCII.] AXE. [SECURIS.] AXIS. [CURRus.] AXLE. [CURRUS.] A'XONES (ǎoves), wooden tablets of a square or pyramidal form, made to turn on an axis, on which were written the laws of Solon. 47 puelus (πúελoç) by the later Greeks. It did not contain water itself, but was only used for the bather to sit in, while the warm water was poured over him. On Greek vases, however, we never find anything corresponding to a modern bath in which persons can stand or sit; but there is always a round or oval basin (λουτήρ οι λουτήριον), resting on a stand, by the side of which those who are bathing are standing undressed and washing themselves. BALISTA, BALLISTA. [TORMENTUM.] SHMO Greek Bath. BALNEUM or BĀLINEUM (λοετρόν οι λουτρόν, βαλανεῖον, also balneae or balineae), a bath. Balneum or balineum signifies, in its primary sense, a bath or bathing vessel, such as most Romans possessed in their own houses; and from that it came to mean the chamber which contained the bath. When the baths of private individuals became more sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, the plural balnea or balinea was adopted, which still, in correct language, had reference only to the baths of private persons. Balneae and balineae, which have no singular number, were the public baths. But this accuracy of diction is neglected by many of the subsequent writers. Thermae (from Oépun, warmth) mean properly warm springs, or baths of warm water, but were afterwards applied to the structures in which the baths were placed, and which were both hot and cold. There was, however, a material distinction between the balneae and thermae, inasmuch as the former was the term used under the republic, and referred to the public establishments of that age, which contained no appliances for luxury beyond the mere convenience of hot and cold baths, whereas the latter name was given to those magnificent edifices which grew up under the empire, and which comprised within their range of buildings all the appurtenances belonging to the Greek gym-meal of the day (dɛīπvov.) nasia, as well as a regular establishment appropriated for bathing. Bathing was a practice familiar to the Greeks of both sexes from the earliest times. The artificial warm bath was taken in a vessel called asaminthus (¿œáμıvôoç), by Homer, and In the Homeric times it was customary to take first a cold and afterwards a warın bath; but in later times it was the usual practice of the Greeks to take first a warm or vapour, and afterwards a cold bath. At Athens the frequent use of the public baths, most of which were warm baths (Baλaveia, called by Homer Oɛрμà 2оɛтрá), was regarded in the time of Socrates and Demosthenes as a mark of luxury and effeminacy. Accordingly, Phocion was said to have never bathed in a public bath, and Socrates to have used it very seldom. After bathing, both sexes anointed themselves, in order that the skin might not be left harsh and rough, especially after warm water. Oil (čλacov) is the only ointment mentioned by Homer, but in later times precious unguents (uúpa) were used for this purpose. The bath was usually taken before the principal The Lacedaemonians, who considered warm water as enervating, used two kinds of baths; namely, the cold daily bath in the Eurotas, and a dry sudorific bath in a chamber heated with warm air by means of a stove, and from them the chamber used by the Romans for a |