APHRODI'SIA ('Aopodioia), were festivals celebrated in honour of Aphrodité (Venus), in a great number of towns in Greece, but particularly in the island of Cyprus. Her most ancient temple was at Paphos. No bloody sacrifices were allowed to be offered to her, but only pure fire, flowers, and incense. APLUSTRE (apλaorov), an ornament of wooden planks, which constituted the highest part of the poop (prumnis) of a ship. From the representations of two ancient ships annexed, we see the position of the aplustre. It rose immediately behind the gubernator, who held the rudder and guided the ship, and it served in some degree to protect him from the wind and the rain. Aplustre. At the junction of the aplustre with the stern, on which it was based, we commonly observe an ornament resembling a circular shield; this was called doπidetov or doπidíOkη. It is seen on the two aplustria here represented. Aplustre. APODECTAE (άлоdéктα), public officers at Athens, who were introduced by Cleisthenes in the place of the ancient colacretae (kwhaкpéтaι). They were ten in number, one for each tribe, and their duty was to collect all the ordinary taxes, and distribute them among the separate branches of the administration which were entitled to them. APOGRAPHE (arоyрapn), literally "a list, or register;" signified also, 1. An accusation in public matters, more particularly when there were several defendants. It differed but little, if at all, from the ordinary graphé. 2. A solemn protest or assertion before a magistrate, to the intent that it might be preserved by him till it was required to be given in evidence. 3. A specification of property, said to belong to the state, but actually in the possession of a private person; which specification was made with a view to the confiscation of such property to the state. APOLLINARES LUDI. [LUDI APOLLI APOTHEOSIS. to discharge the trierarchy. They had the power, in certain cases, of imprisoning the trierarchs who neglected to furnish the ships properly. APOTHECA (аπоońкη), a place in the upper part of the house, in which the Romans frequently placed the earthen amphorae in which their wines were deposited. This place, which was quite different from the cella vinaria, was above the fumarium; since it was thought that the passage of the smoke through the room tended greatly to increase the flavour of the wine. APOTHEO'SIS (àπoléwols), the enrolment of a mortal among the gods. The mythology of Greece contains numerous instances of the deification of mortals; but in the republican times of Greece we find few examples of such deification. The inhabitants of Amphipolis, however, offered sacrifices to Brasidas after his death. In the Greek king- APPA'RITOR, the general name for a pubdoms, which arose in the East on the dis- lic servant of the magistrates at Rome, namely memberment of the empire of Alexander, it the ACCENSUS, CARNIFEX, COACTOR, INTERappears to have been not uncommon for the PRES, LICTOR, PRAECO, SCRIBA, STATOR, successor to the throne to offer divine honours VIATOR, of whom an account is given in septo the former sovereign. Such an apotheo-arate articles. They were called apparitores sis of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, is described by Theocritus in his 17th Idyl. The term apotheosis, among the Romans, properly signified the elevation of a deceased emperor to divine honours. This practice, which was common upon the death of almost all the emperors, appears to have arisen from the opinion which was generally entertained among the Romans, that the souls or manes of their ancestors became deities; and as it was common for children to worship the manes of their fathers, so it was natural for divine honours to be publicly paid to a deceased emperor, who was regarded as the parent of his country. This apotheosis of an emperor was usually called consecratio; and the emperor who received the honour of an apotheosis was usually said in deorum numerum referri, or consecrari, and whenever he is spoken of after his death, the title of divus is prefixed to his name. The funeral pile on which the body of the deceased emperor was burnt, was constructed of several stories in the form of chambers rising one above another, and in the highest an eagle was placed, which was let loose as the fire began to burn, and which was supposed to carry the soul of the emperor from earth to heaven. The following wood-cut is taken from an agate, which is supposed to represent the apotheosis of Germanicus. In his left hand he holds the cornucopia, and Victory is placing a laurel crown upon his head. because they were at hand to execute the commands of the magistrates (quod iis apparebant). Their service or attendance was called apparitio. APPELLATIO, appeal. 1. GREEK (EOEσIS or avadikia). Owing to the constitution of the Athenian tribunals, each of which was generally appropriated to its peculiar subjects of cognizance, and therefore could not be considered as homogeneous with or subordinate to any other, there was little opportunity for bringing appeals properly so called. It is to be observed also, that in general a cause was finally and irrevocably decided by the verdict of the dicasts (dikη avтOTελnç). There were only a few exceptions in which appeals and new trials might be resorted to. 2. ROMAN. The word appellatio, and the corresponding verb appellare, are used in the early Roman writers to express the application of an individual to a magistrate, and particularly to a tribune, in order to protect himself from some wrong inflicted, or threatened to be inflicted. It is distinguished from provocatio, which in the early writers is used to signify an appeal to the populus in a matter affecting life. It would seem that the provocatio was an ancient right of the Roman citizens. The surviving Horatius, who murdered his sister, appealed from the duumviri to the populus. The decemviri took away the provocatio; but it was restored by the Lex Valeria et Horatia, B. c. 449, in the year after the decemvirate, and it was at the same time enacted, that in future no magistrate should be made from whom there should be no appeal. On this Livy remarks, that the plebs were now protected by the provocatio and the tribunicium auxilium; this latter term has reference to the appellatio properly so called. The complete phrase to express the provocatio is provocare ad populum; and the phrase which expresses the appellatio is appellare ad, &c. AQUAE DUCTUS, signifies an artificial channel or watercourse, by which a supply of water is brought from a considerable distance, upon an inclined plane raised on arches, and carried across valleys and uneven country, and occasionally under ground, where hills or rocks intervene. As nearly all the ancient aquaeducts now remaining are of Roman construction, it has been generally imagined that works of this description were entirely unknown to the Greeks. This, however, is an error, since some are mentioned by Pausanias and others, though too briefly to enable us to judge of their particular construction. Probably those which have been recorded-such as that built by Peisistratus at Athens, that at Megara, and the celebrated one of Polycrates at Samoswere rather conduits than ranges of building like the Roman ones. Of the latter, few were constructed in the times of the republic. It was not until about B. c. 311, that any were erected, the inhabitants supplying themselves up to that time with water from the Tiber, or making use of cisterns or springs. The first aquaeduct was begun by App. Claudius the censor, and was named after him, the Aqua Appia. Subsequently seven or eight aquaeducts were built, which brought an abundant supply of water to Rome. The specus, or water channel, was formed either of stone or brick coated with cement, and was arched over at top, in order to exclude the sun, on which account there were apertures or ventholes at certain distances. The water, however, besides flowing through the specus, passed also through pipes, either of lead or burnt earth (terra-cotta). At the mouth and termination of every aquaeduct there was a large reservoir, called castellum, and there were usually also intermediate castella at certain distances along its course. The castellum at the mouth or opening into the aquaeduct was also called piscina limosa, because the water was collected in it, in order that it might first deposit its impurities. The principal castellum was that in which the aquaeduct terminated, and whence the water was conveyed by different branches and pipes to various parts of the city. ARA. During the times of the republic, the censors and aediles had the superintendence of the aquaeducts; but under the emperors particular officers were appointed for that purpose, under the title of curatores or praefecti aquarum. These officers were first created by Augustus, and were invested with considerable authority. In the time of Nerva and Trajan, about seven hundred architects and others were constantly employed, under the orders of the curatores aquarum, in attending to the aquaeducts. The officers who had charge of these works were, 1. The villici, whose duty it was to attend to the aquaeducts in their course to the city. 2. The castellarii, who had the superintendence of all the castella both within and without the city. The circuitores, so called because they had to go from post to post, to examine into the state of the works, and also to keep watch over the labourers employed upon them. 4. The silicarii, or paviours. 5. The tectores, or plasterers. All these officers appear to have been included under the general term of aquarii. 3. AQUAE ET IGNIS INTERDICTIO. [EXSILIUM.] AQUA RII, slaves who carried water for bathing, &c. into the female apartments. The aquarii were also public officers who attended to the aquaeducts. [AQUAE DUCTUS.] AQUEDUCT. [AQUAE DUCTUS.] A'QUILA. [SIGNA MILITARIA.] ARA (Bwuós Ovτýpiov), an altar. Ara was a general term denoting any structure elevated above the ground, and used to receive upon it offerings made to the gods. Altare, probably contracted from alta ara, was properly restricted to the larger, higher, and more expensive structures. Four specimens of ancient altars are given below; the two in the former wood-cut are Arae, Altars. square, and those in the latter round, which is the less common form. At the top of three of these altars we see the hole intended to receive the fire (oxaρίς, ἐσχάρα): the fourth was probably in ARATRUM. 31 ARATRUM (apоrроv), a plough. Among the Greek and Romans the three most essential parts of the plough were-the plough-tail (yons, buris, bura), the share-beam (λvua, dens, 1 dentale), that is, the piece of wood to which the share is fixed, and the pole (pvuós, iσтoßоεús, temo). In the time and country of Virgil it was the custom to force a tree into the crooked form of the buris, or plough-tail. The upper end of the buris being held by the ploughman, the lower part, below its junction with the pole, was used to hold the dentale or sharebeam, which was either sheathed with metal, or driven bare into the ground, according to circumstances. The term vomer was sometimes applied to the end of the dentale. To these three parts the two following are added in the description of the plough by Virgil: 1. The earth-boards, or mould-boards (aures), rising on each side, bending outwardly in such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which had been previously loosened and raised by the share, and adjusted to the share-beam and the handle or stiva (5). It corresponds in all essential particulars with the plough now used about Mantua and Venice, of which an engraving is given. (See following page.) The Greeks and Romans usually ploughed their land three times for each crop. The first ploughing was called proscindere, or novare (veovolai, veuseobal); the second offringere, or iterare; and the third lirare, or tertiare. The field which underwent the "proscissio," was called vervactum or novale (veóç), and in this process the coulter was employed, be ARCHON. ARCH. [ARCUS; FORNIX.] ARCHEION (upxciov), properly means any public place belonging to the magistrates, but is more particularly applied to the archive office, where the decrees of the people and other state documents were preserved. This office is sometimes merely called τὸ δημοσίον. At Athens the archives were kept in the temple of the mother of the gods (unτρwov), and the charge of it was entrusted to the president (TiOrárns) of the senate of the Fivehundred. ARCHERS. [ARCUS.] ARCHIMI'MUS, the chief actor in a pantomime, was especially applied to the chie mimus, who represented at a funeral the deceased person, and imitated his words and actions. ARCHITHEO'RUS (¿pxiléwpos). [THEO before the soil could be turned up by the share. The term "offringere," from ob and frangere, was applied to the second ploughing; because the long parallel clods already turned up were broken and cut across, by drawing the plough through them at right angles to its former di-RUS.] rection. The field which underwent this pro- ARCHON (аpxwv). The government of cess was called ager iteratus. After the second Athens began with monarchy, and after passploughing the sower cast his seed. Also the ing through a dynasty* and aristocracy, ended clods were often, though not always, broken in democracy. Of the kings of Athens, constill further by a wooden mallet, or by har-sidered as the capital of Attica, Theseus may rowing (occatio). The Roman ploughman then, for the first time, attached the earth-boards to his share. The effect of this adjustment was to divide the level surface of the "ager iteratus" into ridges. These were called porcae, and also lirae, whence came the verb lirare, to make ridges, and also delirare, to decline from the straight line. The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to each side in the manner already explained, both covered the newly-scattered seed, and formed between the ridges furrows (avλakεç, sulci) for carrying off the water. In this state the field was called seges and τρίπολος. When the ancients ploughed three times only, it was done in the spring, summer, and autumn of the same year. But in order to obtain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and the Romans ploughed four times, the proscissio being performed in the latter part of the preceding year, so that between one crop and another two whole years intervened. A'RBITER. [JUDEX.] ARCA (KIẞWTOS). 1. A chest, in which the Romans were accustomed to place their money; and the phrase ex arca solvere had the meaning of paying in ready money. The term arcae was usually applied to the chests in which the rich kept their money, and was opposed to the smaller loculi, sacculus, and cru mena. 2. The coffin in which persons were buried, or the bier on which the corpse was placed previously to burial. 3. A strong cell made of oak, in which criminals and slaves were confined. be said to have been the first; for to him, whether as a real individual or a representative of a certain period, is attributed the union of the different and independent states of Attica under one head. The last was Codrus; in acknowledgment of whose patriotism in meeting death for his country, the Athenians are said to have determined that no one should succeed him with the title of king (Baotheus). It seems, however, equally probable, that it was the nobles who availed themselves of the oportunity to serve their own interests, by abolishing the kingly power for another, the possessors of which they called Archontes (apxovтes) or rulers. These for some time continued to be, like the kings of the house of Codrus, appointed for life: still an important point was gained by the nobles, the office being made accountable (UTεÚÕννOS). which of course implies that the nobility had some control over it. This state of things lasted for twelve reigns of archons. The next step was to limit the continuance of the office to ten years, still confining it to the Medontidae, or house of Codrus, so as to establish what the Greeks called a dynasty, till the archonship of Eryxias, the last archon of that family elected as such. At the end of his ten years (B. c. 684), a much greater change took place: the archonship was made annual, and its various *By this is meant that the supreme power, though not monarchical, was confined to one family. |