AGER PUBLICUS. to share in the possession of the public land, | which continued to be the exclusive privilege of the patricians; but as a compensation, each individual plebeian received an assignment of a certain quantity of the public land as his own property. Henceforth the possession of the public land was the privilege of the patricians, and an assignment of a portion of it the privilege of the plebeians. As the state acquired new lands by conquest, the plebeians ought to have received assignments of part of them; but since the patricians were the governing body, they generally refused to make any such assignment, and continued to keep the whole as part of the ager publicus, whereby the enjoyment of it belonged to them alone. Hence, we constantly read of the plebeians claiming, and sometimes enforcing, a division of such land. farther enacted that the surplus land was to be divided among the plebeians. As this law, however,was soon disregarded, it was revived again by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (B. c. 133), with some alterations and additions. The details of the other agrarian laws, mentioned in Roman history, are given under the name of the lex by which they are called. [LEX.] AGGER (xua), from ad and gero, was used in general for a heap or mound of any kind. It was more particularly applied :1. To a mound, usually composed of earth, which was raised round a besieged town, and which was gradually increased in breadth and height, till it equalled or overtopped the walls. The agger was sometimes made not only of earth, but of wood, hurdles, &c.; whence we read of the agger being set on fire. 2. To the earthen wall surrounding a Roman With the extension of the conquests of encampment, composed of the earth dug from Rome, the ager publicus constantly increased, the ditch (fossa), which was usually 9 feet and thus a large portion of Italy fell into the broad and 7 feet deep; but if any attack was hands of the patricians; who frequently with-apprehended, the depth was increased to 12 held from the state the annual payments of a tenth and a fifth, which they were bound to pay for the possession of the land, and thus deprived the state of a fund for the expenses of the war. In addition to which they used slaves as cultivators and shepherds, since freemen were liable to be drawn off from fieldlabour to military service, and slave-labour was consequently far cheaper. In this way the number of free labourers diminished, and that of slaves was augmented. To remedy this state of things several laws were from time to time proposed and carried, which were most violently opposed by the patricians. All laws which related to the public land, are called by the general title of Leges Agrariae, and accordingly all the early laws relating to the possession of the public land by the patricians, and to the assignment of portions of it to the plebeians, were strictly agrarian laws; but the first law to which this name is usually applied, was proposed soon after the establishment of the republic by the consul Sp. Cassius in B. c. 486. Its object was to set apart the portion of the public land which the patricians were to possess, to divide the rest among the plebeians, to levy the payment due for the possession, and to apply it to paying the army. The first law, however, which really deprived the patricians of the advantages they had previously enjoyed in the occupation of the public land was the agrarian law of C. Licinius Stolo (B. c. 366), which limited each individual's possession of public land to 500 jugera, and declared that no individual should have above 100 large and 500 smaller cattle on the public pastures: it B feet and the breadth to 13 feet. Sharp stakes, &c. were usually fixed upon the agger,which was then called vallum. When both words are used, the agger means the mound of earth, and the vallum the stakes, &c. which were fixed upon the agger. AGITATO RES. [CIRCUS.] AGMEN, the marching order of the Roman army. The form of the army on march differed according to circumstances and the nature of the ground. An agmen pilatum was an army in close array; an agmen quadratum was an army arranged in the form of a square, with the baggage in the middle. AGNA TI. [COGNATI.] AGONA LIA or AGO NIA, a Roman festival instituted by Numa Pompilius, in honour of Janus, and celebrated on the 9th of January, the 20th of May, and the 10th of December. The morning of these festivals, or, at least, the morning of the 10th of December, was considered a dies nefastus. The etymology of this name was differently explained by the ancients; some derived it from Agonius, a surname of Janus; some from the word agone, because the attendant, whose duty it was to sacrifice the victim, could not do so till he had asked the rex sacrificulus, Agone? and others from agonia, because the victims were formerly called by that name. AGONO THETAE (ȧywvoléтai), persons in the Grecian games, who decided disputes, and adjudged the prizes to the victors. Origi nally, the person who instituted the contest, and offered the prize, was the Agonothetes, and this continued to be the practice in those by lot. AGROTERAS THUSIA. The principal duty of the Agoranomi was, as their name imports, to inspect the market, and to see that all the laws respecting its regulation were properly observed. They had the inspection of all things that were sold in the market, with the exception of corn, which was subject to the jurisdiction of special officers, called Sitophylaces (OLTOÞÚXaκeç). games which were instituted by kings or pri- | for the Peiraeeus, and they were chosen vate persons. But in the great public games, such as the Isthmian, Pythian, &c., the Agonothetae were either the representatives of different states, as the Amphictyons at the Pythian games, or were chosen from the people in whose country the games were celebrated. During the flourishing times of the Grecian republics, the Eleans were the Agonothetae in the Olympic games, the Corinthians in the Isthmian games, the Amphictyons in the Pythian games, and the Corinthians, Argives, and inhabitants of Cleonae in the Nemean games. The Agonothetae were also called Aesymnetae (aiovμvñтai), Agonarchae (aywvápxai), Agonodicae (aywvodíkai), Athlothetae (0200éral), Rhabduchi (paßdouXoi), or Rhabdonomi (paßdovóuol, from the staff they carried as an emblem of authority), Brabeis (βραβεῖς), Brabeutae (βραβευταί). A GORA (ayopá) properly means an assembly of any kind, and is usually employed by Homer to designate the general assembly of the people. The Agora seems to have been considered an essential part of the constitution of the early Grecian states. It was usually convoked by the king, but occasionally by some distinguished chieftain, as, for example, by Achilles before Troy. The king occupied the most important seat in these assemblies, and near him sat the nobles, while the people stood or sat in a circle around them. The people appear to have had no right of speaking or voting in these assemblies, but merely to have been called together to hear what had been already agreed upon in the council of the nobles, and to express their feelings as a body. The council of the nobles is called Boulé (Bovλn) and Thoöcus (0ówкoç), and sometimes even Agora. Among the Athenians, the proper name for the assembly of the people was Ecclesia (EKKλnoía), and among the Dorians Halia (aλía). The term Agora was confined at Athens to the assemblies of the phylae and demi. The name Agora was early transferred from the assembly itself to the place in which the assembly was held; and thus it came to be used for the market-place, where goods of all descriptions were bought and sold. The expression agora plethousa (ȧyoрà π20ovoa), "full market," was used to signify the time from morning to noon, that is, from about nine to twelve o'clock. AGORA NOMI (ayopavóμoi), public functionaries in most of the Grecian states, whose duties corresponded in many respects with those of the Roman aediles. At Athens their number was ten, five for the city, and five AGRARIAN LAWS. [AGER PUBLICUS ; LEX.] AGRAU LIA (aypaúλia), was a festival celebrated by the Athenians in honour of Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops. It was perhaps connected with the solemn oath, which all Athenians, when they arrived at manhood (čonẞot), were obliged to take in the temple of Agraulos, that they would fight for their country, and always observe its laws. AGRIMENSO'RES, or "land surveyors," a college established under the Roman emperors. Like the jurisconsults, they had regular schools, and were paid handsome salaries by the state. Their business was to measure unassigned lands for the state, and ordinary lands for the proprietors, and to fix and maintain boundaries. Their writings on the subject of their art were very numerous; and we have still scientific treatises on the law of boundaries, such as those by Frontinus and Hyginus. AGRIO'NIA ('Aypiúvia), a festival which was celebrated at Orchomenus, in Boeotia, in honour of Bacchus, surnamed Agrionius. A human being used originally to be sacrificed at this festival, but this sacrifice seems to have been avoided in later times. One instance, however, occurred in the days of Plutarch. AGRO NOMI (aypovóμoi), the country-police, probably in Attica, whose duties corresponded in most respects to those of the asty nomi in the city, and who appear to have performed nearly the same duties as the hylori (vλwpoí). AGRO TERAS THU'SIA ('Ayрoτépas Ovoía), a festival celebrated every year at Athens in honour of Diana, surnamed Agrotera (from ǎypa, the chase). It was solemnized on the sixth of the month of Boëdromion, and consisted in a sacrifice of 500 goats, which continued to be offered in the time of Xenophon. Its origin is thus related :-When the Persians invaded Attica, the Athenians made a vow to sacrifice to Artemis (Diana) Agrotera as many goats as there should be enemies slain at Marathon. But when the number of enemies slain was so great that an equal number ALAUDA. of goats could not be found at once, the Athenians decreed that 500 should be sacrificed every year. AISUMNE TES (alovμvýτns), an individual, who was sometimes invested with unlimited power by the Greek states. His power, according to Aristotle, partook in some degree of the nature both of kingly and tyrannical authority, since he was appointed legally, and did not usurp the government, but at the same time was not bound by any laws in his public administration. The office was not hereditary, nor was held for life, but it only continued for a certain time, or until some particular object was accomplished. Dionysius compares it with the dictatorship of the Romans. ALABASTER or ALABASTRUM, a vessel or pot used for containing perfumes, or rather ointments, made of that species of marble which mineralogists call gypsum, and which is usually designated by the name of alabaster. When varieties of colour occur in the same stone, and are disposed in bands or horizontal strata, it is often called onyx alabaster; and when dispersed irregularly, as if in clouds, it is distinguished as agate alabaster. The term seems to have been employed to denote vessels appropriated to these uses, even when they were not made of the material from which it is supposed they originally received their name. Theocritus thus speaks of golden alabastra. These vessels were of a tapering shape, and very often had a long narrow neck, which was sealed; so that when Mary, the sister of Lazarus, is said by St. Mark to break the alabaster box of ointment for the purpose of anointing our Saviour, it appears probable that she only broke the extremity of the neck, which was thus closed. ALĂ, ALA'RII. The troops of the allies in the Roman army were called Alarii, because they were usually stationed on the two wings (alae), and each of these two divisions of the allied troops was called an Ala. The alarii consisted both of horse and foot soldiers, and were commanded by praefecti, in the same manner as the legions were commanded by tribuni. The cavalry of the allies was called equites alarii, to distinguish them from the cavalry of the legions (equites legionarii), and the infantry was called cohortes alariae, to distinguish them from the cohortes legionariae. Under the empire the word Ala was applied to a regiment of cavalry, which usually consisted of 500 men. ALAUDA, the name of a legion which Caesar levied in Cisalpine Gaul, and organized at his own expense during his Gallic wars. He afterwards gave the Roman citizenship to the soldiers of this legion. The soldiers themselves were also called Alaudae, whence Cicero speaks of the legio Alaudarum and of Alaudae ceterique veterani. The legion was called Alauda or "lark," from the form of the crests which the soldiers wore on their helmets. ALBUM, a tablet of any material on which the praetor's edicts, and the rules relating to actions and interdicts, were written. The tablet was put in a public place, in order that all the world might have notice of its contents. According to some authorities, the album was so called, because it was either a white material, or a material whitened, and of course the writing would be a different colour. According to other authorities, it was so called be cause the writing was in white letters. Probably the word album originally meant any tablet containing anything of a public nature. We know that it was, in course of time, used to signify a list of any public body; thus we find album judicum, or the body out of which judices were to be chosen [JUDEX], and album senatorium, or list of senators. A'LEA, gaming, or playing at a game of chance of any kind. Hence aleo, aleator, a gamester, a gambler. Playing with tali, or tesserae, was generally understood, because this was by far the most common game of chance among the Romans. Gaming was forbidden by the Roman laws, both during the times of the republic and under the emperors, but was tolerated in the month of December at the Saturnalia, which was a period of general relaxation; and old men were allowed to amuse themselves in this manner at all times. ALIPTAE (άλɛiятαι), among the Greeks, were persons who anointed the bodies of the athletae preparatory to their entering the palaestra. The chief object of this anointing was to close the pores of the body, in order to prevent much perspiration, and the weakness consequent thereon. The athleta was again anointed after the contest, in order to restore the tone of the strained muscles. He then bathed, and had the dust, sweat, and oil scraped off his body, by means of an instrument similar to the strigil of the Romans, and called stlengis (orλeyyis), and afterwards xystra (úorpa). The aliptae took advantage of the knowledge they necessarily acquired of the state of the muscles of the athletae, and their general strength or weakness of body, to advise them as to their exercises and mode of life. They were thus a kind of medical trainers. Among the Romans, the aliptae were slaves who scrubbed and anointed their masters in the baths. They, too, like the Greek aliptae, ments faile their object. press, so lo tained any complished b sar, when di dates for pub for the consu to the tribes chose the ot red the elect ate, by whic proper sense The trials time of the r in defence o with ambitu Plancius, wh are both exta AMBRO'S gods, which youth and in Jupiter by P the gods for whence we Jupiter. AMBUBAI abub, aubub, a who frequent and obtained lascivious son AMBU'RB formed at Ro city. AMBARVA LIA. [ARAVALES FRATRES.] AMBASSADORS. [LEGATUS.] A'MBITUS, which literally signifies "a going about," cannot, perhaps, be more nearly expressed than by our word canvassing. After the plebs had formed a distinct class at Rome, and when the whole body of the citizens had become very greatly increased, we frequently read, in the Roman writers, of the great efforts which it was necessary for candidates to make in order to secure the votes of the citizens. At Rome, as in every community into which the element of popular election enters, solicitation of votes, and open or secret influence and bribery, were among the means by which a candidate secured his election to the offices of state. The following are the principal terms occurring in the Roman writers in relation to the canvassing for the public offices:-A candidate was called petitor; and his opponent AMICTUS opposed to ind to the putting pallium, laena latter, to the the tunic (x distinction, th dutus, even w of the dress be the outer and In Greek a σθαι, ἀμπέχει λεσθαι: and came ἀμπεχό περίβλημα, α ment, a cloak garment AMENTUM. AMPHICTYONES. 17 ments failed in completely accomplishing | twist, in connection with this subject. The their object. That which no law could sup- amentum was called ancule (ȧykúλŋ) in Greek, press, so long as the old popular forms re- and the verb évayκvλáw was used in reference tained any of their pristine vigour, was ac- to the fastening of the thong to the spear or complished by the imperial usurpation. Cae- javelin. sar, when dictator, nominated half the candidates for public offices, except the candidates for the consulship, and notified his pleasure to the tribes by a civil circular; the populus chose the other half: and Tiberius transferred the elections from the comitia to the senate, by which the offence of ambitus, in its proper sense, entirely disappeared. The trials for ambitus were numerous in the time of the republic. The oration of Cicero in defence of L. Murena, who was charged with ambitus, and that in defence of Cn. Plancius, who was charged with sodalitium, are both extant. AMBRO ́SIA (außpooía), the food of the gods, which conferred upon them eternal youth and immortality, and was brought to Jupiter by pigeons. It was also used by the gods for anointing their body and hair; whence we read of the ambrosial locks of Jupiter. AMBUBAIAE (probably from the Syriac, abub, aubub, a pipe), Eastern dancing_girls, who frequented chiefly the circus at Rome, and obtained their living by prostitution and lascivious songs and dances. AMBU ́RBIUM, a sacrifice which was performed at Rome for the purification of the city. AMICTUS. The verb amicire is commonly opposed to induere, the former being applied to the putting on of the outer garment, the pallium, laena, or toga (iuáriov, pãpoc); the latter, to the putting on of the inner garment, the tunic (Tv). In consequence of this distinction, the verbal nouns amictus and indutus, even without any farther denomination of the dress being added, indicate respectively the outer and inner clothing. In Greek amicire is expressed by auoiévvvσθαι, ἀμπέχεσθαι, ἐπιβάλλεσθαι, περιβάλλεσθαι : and induere by ἐνδύνειν. Hence came ἀμπεχόνη, ἐπίβλημα, and ἐπιβόλαιον, TEрißλnua, and Teрißónalov, an outer garment, a cloak, a shawl; and evdvua, an inner garment, a tunic, a shirt. AMENTUM, a leathern thong tied to the middle of the spear, to assist in throwing it. We are not informed how the amentum added to the effect of throwing the lance; perhaps it was by giving it rotation; and hence a greater degree of steadiness and directness in its flight, as in the case of a ball shot from a rifle gun. This supposition accounts for the frequent use of the verb torquere, to whirl or In the annexed figure the amentum seems to be attached to the spear at the centre of gravity, a little above the middle. Amentum. AMMA (auua), a Greek measure of length, equal to forty nxes (cubits), or sixty πódes (feet); that is, twenty yards 8.1 inches English. It was used in measuring land. ΑΜΡΗΙCTYONES ('Αμφικτύονες). Institutions called amphictyonic appear to have existed in Greece from time immemorial. They seem to have been originally associations of neighbouring tribes, formed for the regulation of mutual intercourse and the protection of a common temple or sanctuary, at which the representatives of the different members met, both to transact business and to celebrate religious rites and games. One of these associations was of much greater importance than all the rest, and was called by way of eminence, the Amphictyonic League o |