founded with the duty of purchasing or pro- | curing it from foreign parts, which was performed by the consuls, quaestors, and praetors, and sometimes by an extraordinary magistrate, as the praefectus annonae. The aediles had to see that the public lands were not improperly used, and that the pasture grounds of the state were not trespassed on; and they had power to punish by fine any unlawful act in this respect. They had a general superintendence over buying and selling, and, as a consequence, the supervision of the markets, of things exposed to sale, such as slaves, and of weights and measures; from this part of their duty is derived the name under which the aediles are mentioned by the Greek writers (ayopavóμot). It was their business to see that no new deities or religious rites were introduced into the city, to look after the observance of religious ceremonies, and the celebration of the ancient feasts and festivals. The general superintendence of police comprehended the duty of preserving order, regard to decency, and the inspection of the baths and houses of entertainment. The aediles had various officers under them, as praecones, scribae, and via tores. The AEDILES CURULES, who were also two in number, were originally chosen only from the patricians, afterwards alternately from the patricians and the plebs, and at last indifferently from both. The office of curule aediles was instituted B. c. 365, and, according to Livy, on the occasion of the plebeian aediles refusing to consent to celebrate the Ludi Maximi for the space of four days instead of three; upon which a senatus-consultum was passed, by which two aediles were to be chosen from the patricians. From this time four aediles, two plebeian and two curule, were annually elected. The distinctive honours of the curule aediles were, the sella curulis, from whence their title is derived, the toga praetexta, precedence in speaking in the senate, and the jus imaginis. The curule aediles only had the jus edicendi, or the right of promulgating edicta; but the rules comprised in their edicta served for the guidance of all the aediles. The edicta of the curule aediles were founded on their authority as superintendents of the markets, and of buying and selling in general. Accordingly, their edicts had mainly, or perhaps solely, reference to the rules as to buying and selling, and contracts for bargain and sale. The persons both of the plebeian and curule aediles were sacrosancti. It seems that after the appointment of the curule aediles, the functions formerly exer AEDILES. cised by the plebeian aediles were exercised, with some few exceptions, by all the aediles indifferently. Within five days after being elected, or entering on office, they were required to determine by lot, or by agreement among themselves, what parts of the city each should take under his superintendence; and each aedile alone had the care of looking after the paving and cleansing of the streets, and other matters, it may be presumed, of the same local character within his district. The other duties of the office seem to have been exercised by them jointly. In the superintendence of the public festivals or solemnities, there was a further distinction between the two sets of aediles. Many of these festivals, such as those of Flora and Ceres, were superintended by either set of aediles indifferently; but the plebeian_games were under the superintendence of the plebeian aediles, who had an allowance of money for that purpose; and the fines levied on the pecuarii, and others, seem to have been appropriated to these among other public purposes. The celebration of the Ludi Magni or Romani, of the Ludi Scenici, or dramatic representations, and the Ludi Megalesii, belonged specially to the curule aediles, and it was on such occasions that they often incurred a prodigious expense, with a view of pleasing the people, and securing their votes in future elections. This extravagant expenditure of the aediles arose after the close of the second Punic war, and increased with the opportunities which individuals had of enriching themselves after the Roman arms were carried into Greece, Africa, and Spain. Even the prodigality of the emperors hardly surpassed that of individual curule aediles under the republic; such as C. Julius Cæsar, the dictator, P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, and, above all, M. Aemilius Scaurus, whose expenditure was not limited to bare show, but comprehended objects of public utility, as the reparation of walls, dock-yards, ports, and aqueducts. In B. C. 45, Julius Cæsar caused two curule aediles and four plebeian aediles to be elected; and thenceforward, at least so long as the office of aedile was of any importance, six aediles were annually elected. The two new plebeian aediles were called Cereales, and their duty was to look after a supply of corn. Though their office may not have been of any great importance after the institution of a praefectus annonae by Augustus, there is no doubt that it existed for several centuries, and at least as late as the time of the emperor Gordian. The aediles belonged to the class of the AEDILES. minores magistratus. The plebeian aediles | were originally chosen at the comitia centuriata, but afterwards at the comitia tributa, in which comitia the curule aediles also were chosen. It appears that until the lex annalis was passed (B. C. 180) a Roman citizen might be a candidate for any office after completing his twenty-seventh year. This law fixed the age at which each office might be enjoyed, and it seems that the age fixed for the aedileship was thirty-seven. The aediles existed under the emperors; but their powers were gradually diminished, and their functions exercised by new officers created by the emperors. After the battle of Actium, Augustus appointed a Praefectus urbi, who exercised the general police, which had formerly been one of the duties of the aediles. Augustus also took from the aediles, or exercised himself, the office of superintending the religious rites, and the banishing from the city of all foreign ceremonials; he also assumed the superintendence of the temples, and thus may be said to have destroyed the aedileship by depriving it of its old and original function. The last recorded instance of the splendours of the aedileship is the administration of Agrippa, who volunteered to take the office, and repaired all the public buildings and all the roads at his own expense, without drawing anything from the treasury. The aedileship had, however, lost its true character before this time. Agrippa AEGIS. had already been consul before he accepted the office of aedile, and his munificent expenditure in this nominal office was the close of the splendour of the aedileship. Augustus appointed the curule aediles specially to the office of putting out fires, and placed a body of 600 slaves at their command; but the praefecti vigilum afterwards performed this duty. They retained, under the early emperors, a kind of police, for the purpose of repressing open licentiousness and disorder. The coloniae, and the municipia of the later period, had also their aediles, whose numbers and functions varied in different places. They seem, however, as to their powers and duties, to have resembled the aediles of Rome. They were chosen annually. AEDITUI, AEDITUMI, AEDITIMI (called by the Greeks vεwкópol, Cáκopol, and rolákоpot), were persons who took care of the temples, attended to the cleaning of them, &c. They appear to have lived in the temples, or near them, and to have acted as ciceroni to those persons who wished to see them. Subsequently among the Greeks, the menial services connected with this office were left to slaves, and the persons called neocori became priestly officers of high rank, who had the chief superintendence of temples, their treasures, and the sacred rites ob served in them. AEGIS (Alyiç) signifies, literally, a goatskin. According to ancient mythology, the aegis worn by Jupiter was the hide of the goat Amaltheia, which had suckled him in his infancy. Homer always represents it as part of the armour of Jupiter, whom on this account he distinguishes by the epithet aegis-bearing (alyioxos). He, however, asserts, that it was borrowed on different occasions, both by Apollo and Minerva. The aegis was connected with the shield of Jupiter, either serving as a covering over it, or as a belt by which it was suspended from the right shoulder. Homer accordingly uses the word to denote not only the goat-skin, which it properly signified, but also the shield to which it belonged. The aegis was adorned in a style corresponding to the might and majesty of the father of the gods. In the middle of it was fixed the appalling Gorgon's head, and its border was surrounded with golden tassels (Ovσavoi), each of which was worth a hecatomb. The aegis is usually seen on the statues of Minerva, in which it is a sort of scarf falling obliquely over the right shoulder, so as to pass round the body under the left arm. The serpents of the Gorgon's head are transferred to the border of the skin. (See the left-hand figure in the cut.) The later poets and artists represent the aegis as a breastplate covered with metal in the form of scales. (See the right-hand figure.) AENEATO RES, were those who blew upon wind instruments in the Roman army; namely, the buccinatores, cornicines, and tubicines. They were also employed in the public games. AEOLIP'YLE (άióλov пúhai) were, according to the description of Vitruvius, hollow vessels made of brass, which were used in explaining the origin, &c. of the winds. These vessels, which had a very small orifice, were filled with water and placed on the fire, by which, of course, steam was created. AERA, a point of time from which subsequent or preceding years may be counted. The Greeks had no common aera till a comparatively late period. The Athenians reckoned their years by the name of the chief archon of each year, whence he was called archon eponymus (úpxv ¿πvvuoç); the Lacedaemonians by one of the ephors, and the Argives by the chief priestess of Juno, who held her office for life. The following aeras were adopted in later times: 1. the aera of the Trojan war (B.c. 1184), which was first made use of by Eratosthenes.-2. the Olympic aera, which began B. C. 776.-3. the Philippic or Alexandrian AERARIUM, aera, which began B. c. 323.-4. the aera of the Seleucidae, which began in the autumn of B. c. 312.-5. the aeras of Antioch, of which there were three, but the one in most common use began in November, B. c. 49. The Romans reckoned their years from the foundation of the city (ab urbe condita), in the time of Augustus and subsequently; but in earlier times the years were reckoned by the names of the consuls. We also find traces of an aera from the banishment of the kings; and of another from the taking of the city by the Gauls. The date of the foundation of Rome is given differently by different authors. That which is most commonly followed is the one given by Varro, which corresponds to B. c. 753. It must be observed, that 753 A. U. C. is the first year before, and 754 A. U. C. the first year after the Christian aera. To find out the year B. C. corresponding to the year A. U. C., subtract the year A. U. c. from 754; thus, 605 A. U. c. 149 B. C. To find out the year A. D., corresponding to the year A. U. C., subtract 753 from the year A. U. C.; thus, 767 A. U. C. 14 A. d. AERARII, those citizens of Rome who did not enjoy the perfect franchise, i. e. those who corresponded to the isoteles and atimi at Athens. The name is a regular adjective formed from aes (bronze), and its application to this particular class is due to the circumstance that, as the aerarii were protected by the state without being bound to military service, they naturally had to pay the aes militare, which was thus originally a charge on them. The persons who constituted this class were either the inhabitants of other towns which had a relation of isopolity with Rome (the inquilini), or clients and the descendants of freedmen. The decemvirs enrolled in the tribes all who were aerarians at that time: and when the tribes comprised the whole nation, the degradation of a citizen to the rank of an aerarian (which was called aerarium facere; referre aliquem in aerarios; or in tabulas Caeritum referri jubere), might be practised in the case of a patrician as well as of a plebeian. Hence, aerarians came to be used as a term of reproach. Respecting the Tribuni Aerarii, see TRIBUNUS. AERA RIUM, the public treasury at Rome. After the banishment of the kings, the temple of Saturn was used as the place for keeping the public treasure, and it continued to be so till the later times of the empire. Besides the public money, the standards of the legions were deposited in the aerarium, and also all decrees of the senate were entered there in books kept for the purpose. The aerarium was divided into two parts: AES. old Italian states possessed a bronze or copper coinage from the earliest times. The first coinage was the as [As], which originally was a pound weight; but as in course of time the weight of the as was reduced not only in Rome, but in the other Italian states, and this reduction of weight was not uniform in the different states, it became usual in all bargains to pay the asses accord the common treasury, in which were deposited the regular taxes, and which was made use of to meet the ordinary expenditure of the state; and the sacred treasury (aerarium sanctum, sanctius), which was never touched except in cases of extreme peril. The twentieth part of the value of every slave who was enfranchised, and some part of the plunder of conquered nations, were deposited in the sacred treasury. Augustus established a sep-ing to their weight, and not according to their arate treasury under the name of aerarium militare, to provide for the pay and support of the army; and he imposed several new taxes for that purpose. The aerarium, the public treasury, must be distinguished from the fiscus, the treasury of the emperors. [FISCUS.] The charge of the treasury was originally entrusted to the quaestors and their assistants, the tribuni aerarii; but in B. c. 49, when no quaestors were elected, it was transferred to the aediles, in whose care it appears to have been till B. c. 28, when Augustus gave it to the praetors, or those who had been praetors. Various changes were made by the early emperors, as to the charge of the aerarium, but it was eventually entrusted to officers, called praefects, who appear to have held their office for two years. AERUSCATO'RES, were vagrants who obtained their living by fortune-telling and begging. They were called by the Greeks ἀγύρται. AES (xaλkós), properly signifies a compound of copper and tin, corresponding to what we call bronze. It is incorrect to translate it brass, which is a combination of copper and zinc, since all the specimens of ancient objects, formed of the material called aes, are found upon analysis to contain no zinc. nominal value. The aes grave was not the old heavy coins as distinguished from the lighter modern; but it signified any number of copper coins reckoned according to the old style, by weight. There was, therefore, no occasion for the state to suppress the circulation of the old copper coins, since in all bargains the asses were not reckoned by tale, but by weight. Bronze or copper (xa2кóç) was very little used by the Greeks for money in early times. Silver was originally the universal currency, and copper appears to have been seldom coined till after the time of Alexander the Great. The copper coin was called Chalcous (xa2kovç). The smallest silver coin at Athens was the quarter-obol, and the chalcous was the half of that, or the eighth of an obol. In later times, the obol was coined of copper as well as silver. AES CIRCUMFORA'NEUM, money borrowed from the Roman bankers (argentarii), who had shops in porticoes round the forum. AES EQUESTRE, the sum of money given by the Roman state for the purchase of the knight's horse. This sum amounted to 10,000 asses. AES HORDEA'RIUM, or HORDIA'RIUM, the sum of money paid yearly for the keep of a knight's horse; in other words, The employment of aes was very general a knight's pay. This sum, which amounted to among the ancients; money, vases, and uten- 2000 asses for each horse, was charged upon sils of all sorts, being made of it. All the the rich widows and orphans, on the princimost ancient coins in Rome and the old Ital-ple that, in a military state, the women and ian states were made of aes, and hence mo- children ought to contribute largely for those ney in general was called by this name. For who fought in behalf of them and the comthe same reason we have aes alienum, mean- monwealth. ing debt, and aera in the plural, pay to the soldiers. The Romans had no other coinage except bronze or copper (aes), till B. c. 269, five years before the first Punic war, when silver was first coined; gold was not coined till sixty-two years after silver. The first coinage of aes is usually attributed to Servius Tullius, who is said to have stamped the money with the image of cattle (pecus), whence it is called pecunia. According to some accounts, it was coined from the commencement of the city, and we know that the AES MILITA'RE. [AERARII.] AES MANUA'RIUM was the money won in playing with dice, manibus collectum. Manus was the throw in the game. All who threw certain numbers were obliged to put down a piece of money; and whoever threw the Venus (the highest throw) won the whole sum, which was called the aes manuarium. AES UXO'RIUM, was a tax paid by persons who lived as bachelors. It was first imposed by the censors in B. c. 403. Various penalties were imposed by Augustus upon those who lived in a state of celibacy, and advantages granted to those who were married and had children. [LEX JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.] AESYMNE TES (Alovμvýτņš), a person who was sometimes invested with unlimited power in the Greek states. His power partook in some degree of the nature both of kingly and tyrannical authority; since he was appointed legally, and did not usurp the gov ernment, but at the same time was not bound by any laws in his public administration. The office was not hereditary, nor was it held for life; but it only continued for a limited time, or till some object was accomplished. Thus we read that the inhabitants of Mytilene appointed Pittacus aesymnetes, in order to prevent the return of Alcaeus and the other exiles. Dionysius compares it with the dictatorship of Rome. In some states, such as Cyme and Chalcedon, it was the title borne by the regular magistrates. AGER PUBLICUS. sometimes applied to a slave who had to perform the lowest menial duties. AGATHOERGI ('Aya@oɛpyoć). In time of war the kings of Sparta had a body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths (iππεiç), of whom the five eldest retired every year, and were employed for one year under the name of Agathoergi, in missions to foreign states. AGE'MA (ἄγημα from ἄγω), the name of a chosen body of troops in the Macedonian army, usually consisting of horsemen. It AGER PUBLICUS, the public land, was the land belonging to the Roman state. was a recognised principle among the Italian nations that the territory of a conquered people belonged to the conquerors. Accordingly, the Romans were constantly acquiring fresh territory by the conquest of the surrounding people. The land thus acquired was usually disposed of in the following way. 1. The land which was under cultivation was either disAFFINES, AFFINITAS, or ADFI'NES, tributed among colonists, who were sent to ADFI'NITAS. Affines are the cognati [COG- occupy it, or was sold, or it was let out to NATI] of husband and wife, the cognati of the farm. 2. The land which was then out of husband becoming the affines of the wife, and cultivation, and which, owing to war, was by the cognati of the wife the affines of the hus- far the greater part, might be occupied by band. The father of a husband is the socer of any of the Roman citizens on the payment of the husband's wife, and the father of a wife a portion of the yearly produce; a tenth of is the socer of the wife's husband. The term the produce of arable land, and a fifth of the socrus expresses the same affinity with respect produce of the land planted with the vine, the to the husband's and wife's mothers. A son's olive, and other valuable trees. 3. The land wife is nurus, or daughter-in-law to the son's which had previously served as the common parents; a wife's husband is gener, or son-in-pasture land of the conquered state, or was law to the wife's parents. Thus the avus, avia-pater, mater-of the wife became by the marriage respectively the socer magnus, prosocrus, or socrus magna-socer, socrus-of the husband, who becomes with respect to them severally progener and gener. In like manner the corresponding ancestors of the husband respectively assume the same names with respect to the son's wife, who becomes with respect to them pronurus and nurus. The son and daughter of a husband or wife born of a prior marriage are called privignus and privigna, with respect to their step-father or step-mother; and with respect to such children the step-father and step-mother are severally called vitricus and noverca. The husband's brother becomes levir with respect to the wife, and his sister becomes glos (the Greek yahwc). Marriage was unlawful among persons who had become such affines as above mentioned. AGALMA (ayaλua), is a general name for a statue or image to represent a god. AGA'SO, a groom, whose business it was to take care of the horses. The word is also used for a driver of beasts of burder and is suitable for the purpose, continued to be used as pasture land for the use of the Roman citizens, who had, however, to pay a certain sum of money for the cattle which they turned upon the land. The occupation of the public land spoken of above under the second head was always expressed by the words possessio and possidere, and the occupier of the land was called the possessor. The land continued to be the property of the state; and accordingly we must distinguish between the terms possessio, which merely indicated the use or enjoyment of the land, and dominium, which expressed ownership, and was applied to private land, of which a man had the absolute ownership. The right of occupying the public land belonged only to citizens, and consequently only to the patricians originally, as they were the state. The plebeians were only subjects, and consequently had no right to the property of the state; but it is probable that they were permitted to feed their cattle on the public pasture lands. Even when the plebeians became a separate estate by the constitution of Servius Tullius, they still obtained no right |