two wives are not uncommon. The offence of adultery is rare, and fornication is not approved. The temperament of the Samoyad is amiable; he is hospitable, cheery, and even-tempered. Sentiment is hardly known to him, and he has no good reason, or hope of future reward for the honest or benevolent acts he performs. Idleness is often necessitated by circumstances, but the naturally active man is discernible even then. The Samoyad is capable of politeness and of sobriety, though the Russian traders do their best to destroy the latter virtue. The Samoyad is neighbourly; the young are obedient and respectful; and the old are tenderly cared for. Inexpressibly filthy in their customs, the Samoyads exhibit as a race social virtues of a high order. Physical Appearance. The average stature of the men is 5 ft. 13 in., and of the women 4 ft. 9 ins. The head is wide and low; the face broad and short; the forehead usually receding; the eyebrows pencilled and arched; the nose is flat, but straight; the prominence of the mouth is not marked, but the lips are thick. The eyes are wide apart and oblique; their colour is black and their size small; the lids are full. The colour of the skin is yellowish-brown, while the cheeks of young people are frequently ruddy. The hair, which is cylindrical and coarse, is jet black. The moustache is always slight, and there usually depends from the chin a weak thin beard. The highest English authority on the Samoyads is Mr. F. G. Jackson, and in his work on the subject (The Great Frozen Land) he tells us that the physique of the Samoyad is sturdy: the shoulders being broad, the legs stout, though short, and the arms highly developed. The head is out of proportion to the body in its largeness, and the neck is short and thick. The sense of hearing is extremely acute, and the sight remarkably keen; the power of grasp is considerable. The Samoyads run well, and are capable of enduring great fatigue, and sustaining arduous exercise for a long period. Occupations. These are chiefly hunting and fishing. To enable them to do the former, they break and train the reindeer until these animals have reached a high stage of excellence as draught beasts. The sledge, too, is perfectly adapted to the physical difficulties presented by the Tundra. The reindeer is the staff of life on the Tundra. Its skin makes the tent or 'choom' which fends the wild weather from his master; it also forms the chief fabric of his clothing. Its body constitutes the main food of the Samoyad, and its hide and sinews his harness, cordage, and thread. It is the only animal which is fitted to draw burdens across the Tundra, a quaking bog in summer, a howling frozen plain in winter. In the latter season, the Samoyad hunts, attacks, and snares the white bear, brown bear, sable, fox, lynx, and other fur-bearing animals; in summer, he catches enormous numbers of birds geese, swans, duck, &c. He brings his furs to the market before the melting of the snow makes it impossible for him to take heavy loads across the Tundra; but a contingent is usually left behind to complete the season's harvest. These the Samoyad rejoins before the rivers burst free from the ice, and the whole country becomes an impassable swamp. Notes on Marriage Customs, Social Usages, Funerals, Folk-lore, Weapons and Instruments, and Costume, were also included in the paper. 3. On Cannibalism. By Captain S. L. HINDE. Captain Hinde, who has been travelling and fighting for some years in the Congo basin, and has therefore had many almost unprecedented opportunities of observing the natives, gave the following information with regard to cannibalism : Almost all the races in the Congo basin practise cannibalism, and though in some parts it is prevented by the presence of white civilisation, in others it seems to be on the increase. An extensive traffic in human flesh prevails in many districts, slaves being kept and sold as an article of food. The different tribes have various and horrible methods of preparing the flesh for eating; in some instances, before the death of the victim, certain tribes of the Bangala race themselves acknowledge that they break the arms and legs of the victim, and place the body, thus mutilated and still living, in water for two or three days, on the supposition that this pre-mortem treatment renders the flesh more palatable. There are also distinct tribal preferences for various parts of the body, and it is remarkable that, contrary to an ignorant yet very generally accepted theory, the negro man-eater never eats flesh raw, and certainly takes human flesh as food purely and simply, and not from any religious or superstitious reasons. 4. Report on the Physical and Mental Defects of Children. 5. Report on Anthropometric Measurements in Schools. MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16. The following Papers and Report were read: 1. Horns of Honour and Dishonour and Safety. By F. T. ELWORTHY. 2. On the Origin of the Dance. By Mrs. LILLY GROVE, F.R.G.S. The study of the history of the dance throws a light on manners and customs of various races, on connection between nations geographically remote, and especially on primitive religion. After a long study of the subject, the conclusion arrived at is that most dances were once a form of worship, or at least a form of magic. Many myths relate that the deities not only delighted in seeing the dance, but also enjoyed performing in it. Promises of a heaven in which there will be much dancing and many dancers are held out by several religions, even by monotheist ones, and even by some Christian Fathers. All ritual dances are grave, reverent, and symbolical of joy, or gratitude, or sorrow. The object of this Paper is to point out that most dances have a sacred origin, and to show what survivals we have of these dances. Three forms are chosen in support of the theory-the weapon dances, the ritual dances, and the funeral and death dances. Weapons were once worshipped and held sacred, hence numerous sword dances in all parts of the globe-in the Himalayas, in the Andes of Bolivia, in Scotland, in Spain, in Scandinavia, generally in mountain districts. Ritual dances are so numerous that a choice has to be made, and only those of Christian worship will be considered; among those the Los Seises dance of the Seville Cathedral and the dancing procession of Echternach, which latter probably arose from a penitential vow. Medicine dances belong generally to the ritual, for the mystery or medicine man is usually also the priest. Funeral dances are world-wide among pagans and Christians; they originate in what the author of The Golden Bough calls sympathetic magic, they are often a form of exorcism, or of propitiation of death, or arise from fear of the soul of the departed. The dance being a form of worship of the Deity, eventually also becomes a form of reverence towards the departed. Pagans mostly honour aged men, chiefs, and priests by such a funeral dance, while Christians perform funeral dances to rejoice over the death and consequent delivery from evil of a young person who has died in a state of innocence. Parallels have been made between the 'Lemuric' dances of the Roman Empire and the dance macatre, but the parallel is not complete; in England the latter was called the 'Doleful Dance, also the Shaking of the Sheets.' Churchyards used to be the most favourite places for the dance, and the Welsh danced in their graveyards after the conclusion of the sermon until quite recently. At one time of the world's history the dance must have been exclusively an act of homage towards the Deity, or the ministers and earthly representatives of the Deity. As nations grow out of infancy and become more artificial and affected, the dance loses in significance. 3. Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee.-See Reports, p. 509. 4. On Ethnographical Observations in East Aberdeenshire.1 In August last, observations were made by the Buchan Field Club on the people at the Mintlaw Gathering, in the centre of north-east Aberdeenshire. At the entrance, the colour of hair and eyes, and shape of nose of 2,309 males and 649 females were noted. In a tent in the grounds measurements were made of the height (standing and sitting), and length and breadth of head, of 169 adult native males. The people belonged to the agricultural class. The gate observations gave the following gross percentages:-Hair-fair 97, red 57, brown 644, dark 20-2; eyes-dark 262, medium 490, light 24.8; noses-straight 56.4, concave 19.9, high bridge or Roman 14.8, sinuous or wavy 67, and aquiline or Jew 2.2. In the gate observations, it was found that in the majority of cases light eyes were associated with fair hair, and dark eyes with dark hair. The ratio of light to dark eyes changed gradually from fair hair, through red and brown hair, to dark hair. On analysing the combinations of hair colour with the different types of noses, it was found that the sum of the fair and red hair associated with each type of nose was, in each case, almost the same, but the number of cases with dark hair was least with concave noses and greatest with aquiline noses. This appears to indicate that one of the primitive race-types had fair hair, light eyes, and a concave nose. This agrees with the Germanic or Canstadt type. The extreme cephalic indexes obtained in the tent measurements were 86 and 70; but the most usual indexes were 77 and 79. The diagrams of head breadths and lengths, heights, and cephalic indexes all show two principal maxima near the centre, with at least two smaller maxima at the sides. The prevailing type in the district has brown hair, medium eyes, and a straight nose; but this appears to be a mixed type, sprung from the mixture of a dolichocephalic fair race with two dark races, one dolichocephalic and tall, and the other brachycephalic and short. 5. On the Suffolk Dialect. By C. G. DE BETHAM. 6. General Conclusions on Folk-lore. By EDWARD CLODD. 7. Illustrations of Folk Lore. By Professor A. C. HADDON. A full account will be published in the Transactions of the Buchan Field Club. TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17. A Discussion on interference with the civilisation of other races was opened by the reading of the following Paper: 1— 1. Protest against the Unnecessary Uprooting of Ancient Civilization in Asia and Africa. By ROBERT N. CUST, LL.D. The tendency on the part of Europeans, and English and French especially, to denationalise the customs of populations which come under their influence, is to be deplored, so long as those customs are not contrary to the moral laws of the human race. It is not in any way evident that the customs of European nations are in themselves better than those of the Asiatic and North African; as regards the barbarous races of Africa south of the Sahara, Oceania, and North America the argument is not pressed, but is restricted to those regions where the inhabitants have an ancient civilization of their own, such as Persia, India, China, and Japan. Any forcible change of dress, language, social practice, and municipal law, is to be deplored: the progress of education, civilization, and contact with nations in a superior state of culture will do its own work insensibly without wounding the self-respect of ancient nations: the argument applies particularly to British India. Nothing can be more prudent and rational than the action of the British Government, but associations of irresponsible persons are found in Great Britain interfering with the prejudices of a great nation of nearly three hundred millions, which may eventuate in very serious consequences. The study of the gradual development of an Asiatic society by voluntary adoption of European influence will be most interesting to the student of anthropology. The following Papers were read : 2. The Light thrown on Primitive Warfare by the Languages and Usages of Historic Times. By Rev. G. HARTWELL JONES, M.A. The institution of war dates from the highest antiquity; nor was it an unmitigated evil. It deeply influenced civilisation. Early Greece and Italy may be taken as types of other Aryan' countries, and the evidence they afford can be supplemented by evidence from other quarters. The sources of evidence are (1) the dead languages, especially Greek and Latin; (2) survivals among civilised races and the customs of backward savages to-day; all of which point to the evolution of civilisation in Greece and Italy from a primitive barbarism. The influence of war was far-reaching. It left a deep impression upon (1) language, as is seen in the words common to different branches of the Aryan' stock; (2) society: for example, marriage and social distinctions; (3) religion. Religious feuds were often the occasion of war; the gods intervened in these struggles, as is seen from the prominent place occupied by war-gods in the mythologies of' Aryan' races. The history of primitive warfare exhibits three stages of growth. It is impossible to differentiate them clearly, but we may distinguish war (1) in the hunting stage. Here the methods would be of the crudest kind-stones, charred stakes, horns, and a rude bow and arrows were employed; battles were marked by cruelty and treachery. (2) The pastoral stage. Here the ox figured frequently; it was often the cause of hostilities, as witness some names for battle. (3) With the rise of agriculture war assumed a fiercer aspect, greater issues being at stake. An account of the discussion has been published at the office of the East Anglian Daily Times, Ipswich. Within the limits of one country there was sometimes a variety of usage, according to the different influences, mainly geographical and racial, to which its parts were subjected. Language reflects this diversity. Primitive warfare was religious in its character, war-gods interposing, each with champions and totems. The early Latin god Janus is a good instance of the survival of animism down to a late time. The causes of primitive warfare were diverse. At first it was carried on chiefly for (1) self-defence, for protection of food supplies, shelter, and wives. Animals and pastures were frequently grounds of contention. In this respect Sanskrit is very instructive. (2) Wars of aggression do not fall much within the scope of our inquiry. The earliest wars were characterised by cruelty. Those who were incapacitated from fighting by age were put to death, sometimes voluntarily. Even as late as the time of Homer physical force, rather than skill, distinguished the warrior and decided battles. Bodily strength, therefore, marked out men for leadership, and a nobility gradually grew up from the warrior class. Battles were preceded by sacrifices, and it is significant that these were performed by the chieftain, who combined in his person functions afterwards separated. The nature of the country dictated the tactics, according as the ground was swampy, rocky, or wild. At first only foot-soldiers were employed; chariotdriving followed; horse-soldiers were a more recent development. Although there are indications even in the Vedic hymns of riding being known, yet as late as Homer's time it was rather a special art than a common practice. Relationship was the basis of arrangement on the battle-field. The usages after the conclusion of hostilities are instructive. (1.) Reverence towards the gods. They were invited to desert, and their attendants were protected from violence. (2.) Males were ruthlessly put to the sword; women and children were treated barbarously. Indignities were heaped upon the conquered, and bodies were sometimes mutilated. It is impossible to resist the conclusion that human sacrifice was practised. An examination of the material on this subject establishes several interesting points the religious character of early civilisation, the divergence of the branches of the Aryan' family of races, and their development in different directions. 3. On a Paleolithic Skeleton from the Thames Valley. 4. On the Skulls of the New Race in Egypt. By Dr. J. G. Garson. 5. On the Andamanese. By MAURICE PORTMAN. 6. On the Eskimo. By F. LINKLATER and J. A. FOWLER. WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18. The following Papers and Reports were read: 1. The Neolithic Station of Butmir. By Dr. R. MUNRO. The author, as member of the Congress of Archaeologists and Anthropologists held at Sarajevo in August of last year, had an opportunity of inspecting the remarkable Neolithic station of Butmir, which forms the subject of this communi 1895. 3 H |