tongues; and Greek and Latin authors ought to be as familiar to the English reader as Milton or Macaulay. To say that because it is impossible in a business education to give several years to a working knowledge of ancient languages, that therefore all thought written in those languages shall be a sealed book, is pedantry run mad. A few months, or even weeks, on translations will at least open the mind, and give an intelligent sense of the variety and the standpoint of the intellect of the past. And such a course is certainly better than the total ignorance which now prevails on such lines where the classics are not taught.

What seems to be the most practical course would be the recognition of civilisation or social life as a branch of general reading to be stimulated in schools, and encouraged by subsequent inquiry as to the extent to which it is followed and understood, without making it an additional fang of the examination demon.

The books required for such reading should cover the life of Greece, Rome, Babylon, Egypt, and Mexico in ancient times; and China, India, Persia, Russia, Spain, and one or two low civilisations, such as the Andamans and the Zulus, in modern times. Neither histories nor travels are wanted for this purpose; but a selection of the literature which shall most illustrate the social life and frame of the community, with full explanation and illustrations. We need not to excite wonder, astonishment, or disgust; but rather to enable the reader to realise the daily life, and to live in the very minds of the people. Where no literature is available, a vivid study of the nature of the practical working of their civilisation should take its place.

Such is the practical scope of anthropology in our daily life, where it needs as much consideration and will exercise as great an influence as any of the other subjects dealt with by this Association.

The following Papers were then read:-
:-

1. On a Recent Discovery of the Remains of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jamaica. By Sir W. H. FLOWER, K.C.B., F.R.S.

2. On Skulls of Neolithic Invaders of Egypt.
By Professor W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., LL.D.

3. On Neolithic Invaders of Egypt.

By Professor W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., LL.D.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers and Reports were read:

1. Stone Implements in Somaliland. By H. W. SETON-KARR.

My first discovery of flint chipped spear-heads, knives, and scrapers was in the winter of 1893-4, on my return to the coast from lion-hunting in the interior. A few of those I then picked up are now in the British Museum; a few I gave to the Earl of Ducie's collection, and the remainder I retained for myself. This winter, 1894-5, on my return from lion-hunting I again traversed, without halting, the district to which they appear to me to be confined, and obtained several thousands by diligently searching for them in those places where my previous experience suggested to me that they would probably be found. Of this large number, however, only about one hundred are really symmetrically chipped as spear-heads. I also

gathered a number of cores, chips and flakes, knives, and scrapers. The places where they abound in the district alluded to were invariably of one character. In the first place the district was distinguished by the presence of flint nodules upon the surface, so that these ancient peoples, with whom this place was apparently a manufactory, had the materials ready to their hands.

I observed next that they were more numerous as one approached a well or the river beds in which the wells are dug.

Also I inferred that the people who made them seemed to be timid, or in a state of constant warfare with the surrounding tribes (as the Somalis are to this day), because the spots which seem to have been chosen as factories for the noisy operation of breaking up the flint nodules and shaping them, were usually retired places surrounded by low hills, which would prevent the sound from travelling far. There was also generally a watercourse with steep sides, along which persons could escape unseen if surprised by people coming suddenly over the surrounding ridges.

The implements were most numerous in the vicinity of this central watercourse. The ground had always a very gentle fall, so that the heavy showers which constitute the rainfal! in Somaliland would wash away the sandy soil, and yet keep the stones lying free and clean upon the surface, in which position they were always found.

Also there were generally no other stones upon the surface besides these worked flints.

There is another point which I cannot explain, though the reason may be simple; it is that there was never any vegetation upon the spot upon which I found these implements scattered, excepting a few scraggy mimosa bushes.

This was not owing to my not having searched the surface where it was partly covered with plants, for I was always on the alert to detect the presence of worked flints while in pursuit of game. I trained some of my men to discover these spots, which were not hard to find, being, as I said, bare of vegetation, and the shining surfaces of these flints reflecting the sunlight and covering the ground, sometimes for the space of half an acre. I also trained them to pick up and bring me worked flints. Still, I often found fine specimens on ground which they had already searched.

It is my intention to return once more to this district this winter, which will make my seventh expedition into equatorial oriental Africa.

Finally, out of all my specimens, I think there is not one absolutely perfect; all seem either damaged or unfinished.

Sometimes I found an unfinished spear-head on the ground, surrounded by a mass of flakes and chips, as though the people had dropped their work, and, carrying with them all their perfect weapons and belongings, had fled, never to return.

2. On Flint and Metal Working in Egypt.

By Professor W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., LL.D.

3. On Flint Implements with Glacial Markings from the North of Ireland. By W. J. KNOWLES, M.R.I.A.

The author referred to his having exhibited and described a large pear-shaped flint implement with glacial markings at the Southport meeting in 1883. The flake-marks did not show evidence of bulbs, and the artificial character of the implement was questioned. The author believed that the bulb-marks may have been removed by dressing, but he now produced specimens which were similarly scratched, and showed undoubted marks of bulbs and other evidence of being artificial productions. They were found at Kilroot, Larne, and Island Magee, on the shores of Antrim, and though probably lastly derived from the raised-beach gravels found at those places, he believed they had originally come from a glacial formation which had been removed by denudation.

4. Report on the Plateau Flints of North Kent.-See Reports, p. 349.

5. On Graving Tools from the Terrace-Gravels of the Thames Valley. By H. STOPES.

The author exhibited and described sixty-four stones worked and used by Palæolithic man. These were selected from many more of similar types. They have all been found in the gravels resting on the Chalk, on the Kentish side of the Thames, at levels ranging from 70 feet to 105 feet above O.D. from the various pits occurring between Higham and Dartford.

The series consists of seven distinct forms or groups:

1. Ordinary flakes with used and worked ends ranging from inch to 8 inches long.

2. Fragments or large flakes worked all round but brought to a spur or point, chiefly left-handed, and varying much in shape and size. The points are straight or curved, pointed and duck-billed.

3. Cores similar to 2, but with carefully-formed points, indicating much wear and use, chiefly left-handed.

4. Split flints or wide flakes made nearly square, with one, two, or more points at the corners. Wear on sides indicates use as spokeshaves.

5. Ovate, well-formed tools, or large flakes with strong sharp spur or point at sides or end. These run in size up to 5 inches in width by 7 inches in length.

6. Well-worked tools of the ordinary axe (or hache) shape, with well-defined point at sharp or thin edge. In many this point could not be accidental. In others a broken axe has had a point rechipped in such a position that it would not be able to be readily or conveniently used as an axe.

7. Nodules of flint very slightly worked at one end, chiefly with broad points of the duck-bill type. These stones suggest extensive use of ivory, bone, wood, shell, leather, and all such materials, together with a higher degree of civilisation and refinement than is commonly accorded as yet to Paleolithic men.

6. On Palæolithic Projectiles. By H. STOPES.

Ninety specimens were exhibited of stones, chiefly flint, found in the recognised Paleolithic gravels in Kent, Bedford, and Suffolk. These ranged from 8 in. in diameter to less than 1 in., and from 3 in. in thickness to in., and in weight from over 3 lbs. to half an ounce.

The suggested use was throwing by hand, from a cleft-stick, or with a sling; preferably the latter, as some could not be held in a cleft stick. Many are very rough stones resembling cores, but are carefully fashioned to shape, and some have obviously been used. The author compared them with some found in the vicinity of Neolithic settlements, chiefly at a distance of from 70 to 150 yards outside the camp.

The majority of the stones are circular and flat, the thickness equalling from one-third to one-half the diameter. Some are carefully worked all over.

One series, called gyrators, are very carefully shaped to a thin oval form that possesses a half-spiral twist. The author suggested that they may have been slung, and in flight they might describe an ellipse, after the fashion of a boomerang. Some of these were too thick at the edges to permit of use as flaying-knives.

Over 20 per cent. of the projectiles yet found by the author consist of broken tools. The larger stones are frequently the butt-ends of axes, and the smaller have often apparently been tips. Three shown were broken eoliths from the upper plateau-gravels in Kent, that had been reworked and chipped by men prior to deposition at 105 feet above O.D. in the Swanscombe gravels. One of these is heavily patinated and waterworn on its older faces. When being struck into its present form a fine bulb of percussion was made, which is not waterworn.

7. The Senams, or Megalithic Temples of Tarhuna, Tripoli.

By H. SWAINSON COWPER, F.S.A.

This remarkable series of sites, which hitherto has been practically unknown, formed the sole object of the author's short journey in March. In all, nearly sixty sites were visited, and photographs of them taken. The largest number were found on a green plateau in the Tarhuna hills, but others exist in the surrounding wadis. In some places, indeed, they are so numerous that there are few hill-tops which do not bear traces of one of these temples, so that the author had to content himself with an examination of those which seemed most important. In most cases were found large rectangular enclosures of excellent masonry, though generally very ruinous, and often subdivided by lines of short square columns, occasionally surmounted by rudely designed but excellently worked capitals. Within the enclosure walls, or in line with them, were always to be found large Megalithic structures resembling the Stonehenge trilithons, but the jambs of which are often formed of two or three stones instead of one. These (the Senams proper) are carefully dressed on the side facing the enclosure, and in the jambs are singular square perforations and angle-cut holes, which appear to have been formed to support wooden structures.

The Senams rest on footing stones, and vary in height from 6 to 15 feet; but the average width between the jambs is only 16 inches. In front of some were found massive stone altars, carefully grooved, and flush with the ground. A few sculptures, the subjects of which are Phallic and show Roman influence, were also noticed, in one case a Senam itself being thus ornamented. There is, indeed, much evidence to show that the Romans occupied and utilised these sites without knocking down the Senams or destroying the form of worship. Roman work is mixed up in nearly every case with the work of the Senam builders.

A feature worth notice is the existence of carpentry forms, which would point to the district having at one time been densely timbered; and to the destruction of these woods (probably by the Arabs) is no doubt due the waterless and povertystricken condition of the country at this day. It is to be noticed, that if we except the Stonehenge trilithons, there appear to be no other Megalithic remains, even in Mediterranean countries, with which we can compare the Tripoli series or which show an equal mastery in the art of masonry.

In most cases the Senams appear to have stood free in their enclosures, and were no doubt symbolical and connected with rites of some sort. It is remarkable, that many Babylonian seals show a figure exactly like a Senam placed in the rear of an altar before which stands an adoring priest. It seems possible indeed that in the Senams we have symbolic effigies akin to the Asherah' so often alluded to in the Old Testament, and which was worshipped in connection with Molech and Baal.

Asherah, the symbol of the goddess of fertility, would probably take some such form, and from such a worship sprang no doubt the widely spread customs of squeezing between columns and stones to cure diseases. Further evidence in favour of these being temples of a form of Baal worship may be found in their situations, always on hill-tops, essentially high places,' and possibly also in the character of the carvings.

8. Report on the Kitchen Midden at Hastings.-See Reports, p. 500

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The following Reports and Papers were read:

1. Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada.-See Reports, p. 522.

2. The Samoyads of the Arctic Tundras.

By ARTHUR MONTEFIORE, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.

Distribution of the Samoyads.-This primitive group of the Ural-Altaic family may be found within an area of great extent and very various nature. Samoyads may still be observed on the northern slopes of the Altai range; they still dwell in the afforested valleys of the Yenisei and the Ob, and they continue to thrive on the frozen treeless plains of Siberia and Arctic Russia. From the ultimate sources of the Yenisei in the heart of Asia, they spread northward until their advance is stayed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean. From the Khatanga river in the far east they reach westward into Europe, even to the shores of the White Sea. And we have the authority of Mr. F. G. Jackson (The Great Frozen Land, cap. vi.) for saying that they are still migrating westward-a small group having recently settled in Russian Lapland, and already contributed to the modification of Lapp habits and fashions.

The Arctic Samoyad.-The Samoyad of the Arctic Tundras is the least changed, and perhaps the most interesting of the whole family. Until recently less has been known of his ways and means, of his ideas and morality, of the country in which he lives, and the adaptation of himself to his environment, than of the other branches of the same group. The very impoverishment of his resources has calculated to make him more characteristic and distinct.

Ethnology.-Undoubtedly the term Ural-Altaic is conveniently applied to the four great Mongoloid groups-the Tungus, the true Mongols, the Turks, and the Finns; and the Finnic group may also be properly regarded as made up of the Ugrian races, the Permian, the Bulgarian, the true Finns, and the Samoyads. From another point of view, however, it would be well to include the Samoyads in the Finnic subdivision. For the Samoyads are more nearly allied to the Finns than Ugrians, Permians, and Bulgarians; their speech is Finn, their customs related : and the true Finns, as well as the quasi-Finns, possess in numerous instances survivals and traces of what is to this date in full development among the Samoyads.

Name of Samoyad.-This can be shown to be not of Russian but of Permian and even Finnic origin, and to mean not 'eaters of themselves,' or 'cannibals,' but 'swamp-dwellers.' The old Russian word for them, then, does not suggest cannibalistic custom, but may be translated 'eaters of raw flesh,' which they are to this day.

Language. Closely allied to the Finnic tongue, the Samoyad speech shows, of all the Ural-Altaic languages, the highest development in agglutination. This is carried so far that it almost reaches inflection. Samoyad, indeed, may be regarded as a nexus between the inflexional Indo-Germanic and the agglutinative Mongolian.

Religious Ideas. Although professing Christianity and the Greek Church Lowing to the zeal with which every Russian promotes the cause of his Church], the Samoyads have not relinquished faith in their old gods, and still cherish a cryptopaganism. The impersonal Num, creator of the universe, dwells in the heavens; the rain and snow, heat and cold, thunder and lightning, are expressions of his care for the men he created, as well as of his moods. The sun is his highest form of manifestation; the wide arch of the sky bears witness to the immensity of his being; the countless stars to his far-seeing and intimate knowledge. More material, however, is the idea that the coloured bands of the rainbow form the border of his robe. Veneration of the supernatural is also shown in the cult of the natural: curiously shaped trees, large stones, somewhat resembling the human form, and even roughly shaped stakes of wood, are locally revered. This veneration is also extended to rude models of these stakes, which are made sufficiently small to carry about, and are called Chaddi.

Morality. As a rule, and, of course, wherever they are professed Christians, the Samoyads are husbands of one wife. In Yalmal and other remote places

' Multi-coloured bands of cloth are inserted in the panitsa of the Samoyad.